本研究以個人層次的競爭為研究主題，試圖探討個人層次競爭從1974年至2015年間的研究趨勢變化。研究方法是針對國際學術期刊進行競爭文獻的搜尋，以跨期刊、長時間及系統化的歸納，藉由AMJ、JAP、JASP三本頂級評等的國際學術期刊，蒐集26篇的文獻進行彙整及分析。而文獻彙整後，本研究進行整理歸納，試圖以不同的面向來描繪競爭的軌跡變化，及探討不同面向之相關性及發展趨勢。並以：年份、關鍵字、文獻採用的研究方法、文獻採用的研究對象、文獻的研究缺口議題，五個面向角度來進行分析。而本研究的成果，期望給予後續的研究者，藉由本研究所得到的結果，了解過去的發展及方向，同時提供給後續的研究者在未來研究上，一個明確的研究方向及重要的參考依據。

This study discussed individual level competition. And we are trying to find the researching trends of individual level competition from 1974 to 2015. This study way is using international academic journal of Individual Level Competition literature. This study collected twenty-six papers of individual level competition for analysis through AMJ, JAP and JASP that are top-level international academic journals. The results of this study expected the subsequent researchers who obtained with the results in this research and hoping got development and direction of an understanding in the past. The study will give a clear research directions and important reference to subsequent researchers in their future studies.

第一章 緒論 1
第一節　研究背景與動機 1
第二節　研究目的 4
第二章　文獻探討 5
第一節　競爭的定義與相關理論 5
第二節　競爭的面向 12
第三章　研究方法 21
第一節　質性分析 21
第二節　資料蒐集 22
第四章　研究結果與分析 29
第一節　年份 29
第二節　關鍵字 31
第三節　研究方法 39
第四節　研究對象 41
第五節　後續研究建議 43
第五章　結論與建議 59
第一節　結論 59
第二節　研究貢獻 62
第三節　研究限制與後續研究建議 63
參考文獻 65

一、中文部分
牛涵錚、辛敏綺(2011)。創新與創業精神研究之回顧與發展，創新與管理， 8 (4)，33-62 。
王文科、王智弘(2012)。教育研究法，台北。
吳怡芳(2008) 。團隊內成員競爭內涵及量表之編製，國立東華大學國際企業學研究所碩士論文。
李光炎(1988)。競爭論。
黃金柱(1985) 。體育社會心理學，師大書苑，台北。
葉寶玲、陳秉華、陳盈君、蔡毅樺（2010）。《教育心理學報》四十年（1967-2007）之內容分析。教育心理學報，41（3），685-702。
盧俊宏（1994）。運動心理學，師大書苑，台北。
二、英文部分
Ames, C. (1984). Achievement attributions and self-instructions under competitive and individualistic goal structures. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76, 478-487.
Baer, M., Leenders, R. T. A. J., Oldham, G. R., & Vadera, A. K. (2010). Win or lose the battle for creativity: The power and perils of intergroup competition. Academy of Management Journal, 53(4), 827-845.
Banton, M. (1983). ”The Influence of Colonial Status upon Black-White Relations in England”, 1948-58', Sociology, 17:546-59
Beersma, B., Hollenbeck, J. R., Humphrey, S. E., Moon, H. dan Conlon, D.E. (2003). Cooperation, Competition, and Team Performance: Toward a Contingency Approach. Academy of Management Journal, 46(5), 572-590.
Brandenburger,A. M., & Nalebuff, B. J. (1996). Co-opetition. New York：Currency Doubleday.
Carroll, G. R., & Hannan, M. T. (1989). On using institutional theory in studying organizational populations. American Sociological Review, 54, 545–548.
Caudroit, J., Stephan, Y., Brewer, B. W., & Le Scanff, C. (2010). Contextual and individual predictors of psychological disengagement from sport during a competitive event. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(8), 1999–2018.
Caughron, J. J., Antes, A. L., Stenmark, C. K., Thiel, C. E., Wang, X., & Mumford, M. D. (2013).Competition and sensemaking in ethical situations. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(7), 1491–1507.
Chattopadhyay, P., Finn, C. P., & Ashkanasy, N. M. (2010). Affective responses to professional dissimilarity: a matter of status. Academy of Management Journal, 53(4), 808-826.
Chen, M. (1996). Competitor analysis and interfirm rivalry: Toward a theoretical integration. Academy of Management Review, 21 (1): 100-134.
Chen, M. J., & Hambrick, D. C. (1995). Speed, stealth, and selective attack: how small firms differ from large firms in competitive behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 38(2): 453-482.
Chen, Y.F., Lu, J.F., Tjosvold, D. and Lin, C.T. (2008), Effects of Team Goal Interdependence on Newcomer Socialization- An Experiment in China. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 38(1), 198–214
Conmy B, Tenenbaum G, Eklund R, et al. (2013). Trash talk in a competitive setting: impact on self-efficacy and affect. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(5): 1002–1014
Coulomb-Cabagno, G., & Rascle, O. (2006). Team sports players’ observed aggression as a function of gender, competitive level, and sport type. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 36(8), 1980–2000.
Cox, T. H., S. A. Lobel, & P. L. McLeod. (1991). ‘Effects of ethnic group cultural differences on cooperative and competitive behavior on a group task. Academy of Management Journal, 34(4), 827–847.
Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S., (2005). The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Deutsch, M. (1949a). A theory of co-operation and competition. Human Relations, 2, 129–151.
Deutsch, M. (1949b). An experimental study of the effects of cooperation and competition upon group processes. Human Relations, 2, 199–231.
Feist, G.J., & Runco, M.A.(1993). Trends in the creatively literature: a analysis of research in the Journal of Creative Behavior (1967-1989). Creative Research Journal,(6)3,271-283.
Festinger, L. (1954). A theory of social comparison processes. Human relations, 1, 117–140.
Fletcher, T. D., Major, D. A., & Davis, D. D., (2008). The interactive relationship of competitive climate and trait competitiveness with workplace attitudes, stress, and performance. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 29, 899-922.
Glaman, J. M., Jones, A. P., & Rozelle, R. M. (2002). Competitiveness and the similarity of preferred coworkers. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(1), 142–158.
Hannan, M. T., & Freeman, J. (1989). Organizational ecology, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Hinsz, V.B., & Jundt, D.K. (2005) Exploring individual differences in a goal-setting situation using the Motivational Trait Questionnaire. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35(3), 551-571.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. (2000). Joining together: Group theory and group skills (7eh ed.) . Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1974). Instructional goal structure: Cooperative, competition, or individualistic. Review of Educational Research, 44: 213–240.
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. (1989). Cooperation and competition: Theory and research. Edina. MN: Interaction Book Company.
Kelly, H. H. & Thibaut, J. W. Group problem solving. In G. Lindzey & E. Aronson (1969). The handbook of social psychology. Vol.4, Reading, Mass.:Addison-Wesley.
Kilduff GJ, Elfenbein HA, Staw BM. (2010). The Psychology of Rivalry:A Relationally Dependent Analysis of Competition. Academy of Management Journal, 53(5), 943-969.
Klein, W. M. (1997). Objective standards are not enough: Affective, self-evaluative, and behavioral responses to social comparison information. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 763–774.
Kohn, A. (1986). No contest: the case against competition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Kohn, A. (1992). No contest: The case against competition (Rev. ed.). Boston: Houghton-Mifflin.
Kohn, A. (1993). Why incentive plans cannot work. Harvard Business Review, 71, 54–63.
Kohn, A. (1999). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A’s, praise, and other bribes. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
Lee, M.H., Wu, Y.T., & Tsai, C.C. (2009). Research trends in science education from 2003 to 2007: A content analysis of publications in selected journals. International Journal of Science Education, 31(15), 1999-2020.
Lu, J. F., Tjosvold, D. & Shi, K. (2010). Team training in china: Testing and applying the theory of cooperation and competition. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 40(1), 101–134.
Martens,R. (1975a). The paradigmatic crisis in /American sport personology. Sportwissenschaft, 5, 9-24
Martens,R. (1975b). Socail psychology and physical activity, New York: Haper & Row
Mitchell, T.R., & Silver, W.S. (1990). Individual and group goals when workers are interdependent: Effects on task strategies and performance, Journal of Applied Psychology, 75(2), 185-193.
Napier, E. (1981). Competition in the classroom. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 18(1), 18-19.23.
Neuman, W. K., (2003). Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Nolen, A.L. (2009). The content of educational psychology: An analysis of top ranked journals from 2003 through 2007. Educational psychology review, 21(3), 279-289.
Park, G. S. (1950). The diffiusion of some halo-methanes in polystyrene. Transactions of the Faraday Society, 46:684–690.
Pate, Sandy, Warren Watson, and Lynn Johnson. (1998). The effects of competition on the decision quality of diverse and non-diverse groups. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28(10), 912–23.
Porter, M. E. (1985). Competitive Advantage, New York: Free Press.
Samuels, S. M., & Gibb, R. W. (2002). Self-efficacy assessment and generalization in physical education courses. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 32(6), 1314-1327.
Schweitzer, M. E., DeChurch, L. A., &　Gibson, D. E. Gibson (2005). Conflict frames and the use of deception: Are competitive negotiators less ethical? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 35 (10), 2123–2149.
Shen, W., & Cannella, A., Jr. (2002). Power Dynamics Wuthin Top Management And Their Impacts On CEO Dismissal Followed By Inside Succession. Academy of Management Journal, 45(6), 1195–1205.
Smith, K. G., Crimm, C. M., & Gannonm, M. J. (1992). Dynamics of competitive strategy. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Sternberg, R. J.(1999). Handbook of creativity:Cambridge Univ Pr.
Stockdale, D. F., Galejs, I. & Wolins, L. (1983). Cooperative-competitive preferences and behavioral correlates as a function of sex and age of school-age children. Psychological Reports, 53, 739-750.
Suls, J., & Wheeler, L. (2000). Handbook of social comparison: Theory and research. NewYork: Kluwer Academic.
Tassi, F. and Schneider, B. (1997). Task-oriented versus other-referenced competition: Differential implications for children's peer relations. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27(17): 1557–1580.
Tenebaum, G., Hall, H. K., Calcagnini, N., Lange, R., Freeman, G., & Lloyd, M. (2001). Coping with physical exertion and negative feedback under competitive and self-standard conditions. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 31(8), 1582-1626.
Tjosvold, D. & De Dreu, Carsten. (1997). Managing conflict in Dutch organizations: A test of the relevance of Deutsch's cooperation theory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 27(24), 2213-2227.
Tjosvold, D., & Field , R.H.G. (1983). Effects of Social Context on Consensus and Majority Vote Decision Making. Academy of Management Journal, 26(3), 500-506.
Van de Pol, P. K. C., Kavussanu, M., & Kompier, M. (2015). Autonomy support and motivational responses across training and competition in individual and team sports. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 45 (12), 697 -710.
Washington, M.; Zajac, E. (2005). Status evolution and competition: Theory and evidence. Academy of Management Journal, 48(2), 282–296.
Wearing, A. J. & Bishop, D. W. (1974). The Fiedler Contingency Model and the Functioning of Military Squads. Academy of Management Journal, 17(3), 450-459.
Zitek, E. M., & Monin, B. (2013). “That’s the one I wanted”: When do competitors copy their opponents’ choices? Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(2), 293-305.