More than half of the tropical peatland forests are found in Southeast Asia, and 73% of total SE Asia peatland forests distributed in Indonesia. Tropical peatlands contain immense stores of carbon and play a key role in regional and global ecosystems by sustaining the livelihoods of thousands of local communities and providing habitats for endangered and iconic species as well as many others. Despite these values, Indonesian peatland ecosystems have experienced extensive deforestation and degradation since two decades ago. Extensive degradation of Indonesian peatlands by drainage and logging results in loss of ecosystem functions and frequent forest fire.

Peatland fires causes release of huge amounts of carbon to the
atmosphere that further global warming and cause public health issues.
There is an urgent need to effectively restore peatland areas that are already damaged. However, little research has been published on the factors that influence successful restoration of tropical peatland ecosystems and to suggest solutions to overcome the barrier for restoration. This thesis addresses this gap by focusing on peatland forest in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, and by reviewing 1) causes the degradation of peatland forests in Central Kalimantan, especially forest fire, 2) the environmental changes of peatland forest after forest fires, 3) previous restoration efforts in Central Kalimantan and the effectiveness of these approaches, 4) knowledge or techniques applied to other peatlands that may enhance the effectiveness of peatland forest restoration in tropics. In the final part, I present a conceptual framework of peatland restoration for each status of degraded peatland forest and suggestions for actions to prevent further degradation and to promote forest recovery.

The main drivers of peatland degradation in Central Kalimantan are: drainage, logging and fires. These drivers result in forests that are more prone to fire which leads to further degradation. Both physical and chemical parameters had changed significantly following burning compared to natural condition. To help forest recovery, rewetting through canal blocking and revegetation through seedling nursery, transplants seedlings and artificial bird perches were applied to peatland in Central Kalimantan. Current canal blocking had failed due to heavy rain and lack of consideration for the livelihood of nearby communities. Thus spillway system and infilling canals are suggested.
Large abandoned peatland farms showed little evidence of subsequent forest recovery. Revegetation is difficult due to multiple barriers, such as invasive plants, herbivore, flooding, and seed dispersal limitation. Planting taller seedlings and applying proper herbicide with care may overcome the invasive plants. Furthermore, fencing and shelters can be the options to cope with herbivory on seedlings. To overcome flooding problem, planting the tree along the dike can be the solution. Furthermore, artificial perches have been known increased the seed dispersal.

Strategies of peatland restoration should be designed according to the type of peatland degradation. I present a conceptual framework that includes different level of peatland forest degradation and proposes actions of restoration for each status. The framework can be used by policy-makers and researchers to devise proper restoration approaches for a greater probability of success.

LIST OF CONTENTS .......................................... i
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................... iii
LIST OF TABLES ........................................ iv
Chapter 1. Introduction to tropical peatland ............... 1
1.1 What is peatland? ...................................... 1
1.2 Where are peatlands? ...................................... 1
1.3 Tropical peatland ...................................... 3
1.3.1 The peat ............................................. 4
1.3.2 The flora ............................................ 6
1.3.3 The fauna ............................................ 7
1.4 Why study tropical peatland? .............................. 9
1.5 Deforestation pressure in tropical peatland forest ..... 10
1.6 Objectives ............................................... 14
Chapter 2. Forest fires drive the degradation of peatland forests in Central Kalimantan ....................................... 17
Chapter 3. The changes of environment after forest fires in Central Kalimantan peatland ....................................... 23
3.1 Vegetation changes .................................... 23
3.2 Physical and chemical properties changes of peat ...... 27
Chapter 4. Current peatland restoration efforts in Central Kalimantan ................................................. 33
4.1 Water management ....................................... 33
4.2 Vegetation management ..................................... 41
4.2.1 Seedling nursery ..................................... 42
4.2.2 Inoculation of microbes .............................. 43
4.2.3 Enhancement of seed arrival ............................. 45
Chapter 5. Knowledge or techniques that can be implemented in Central Kalimantan .................................................... 49
5.1 Water management: canal infilling ...................... 52
5.2 Vegetation management ..................................... 53
5.2.1 To cope with the herbs and herbivore issue .............. 54
5.2.2 To cope with flooding issue ............................. 58
5.2.3 To cope with colonization of one or two species issue ... 60
5.2.4 To cope with seed dispersal limitation .................. 60
Chapter 6. Proposed conceptual framework for tropical peatland restoration .................................................. 63
6.1 Conceptual framework ..................................... 63
6.2 The transitions of tropical peatland forest degradation and its restoration .................................................. 64
Chapter 7. Conclusion ........................................ 69
7.1 Summary .................................................. 69
7.2 Limitations ........................................... 70
7.3 Future research .......................................... 70
References: .................................................. 71
Appendix 1 ................................................... 91
Appendix 2 ................................................... 100

Azlan, J.M., and Das, I. (2016) Wildlife conservation in peat swamp forests. Biodiversity of Tropical Peat Swamp Forests of Sarawak (eds J. M. Azlan and I. Das), pp. 209-211. Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia.
Aldhous, P.(2004)Land remediation: Borneo is burning. Nature, 432, 144–146.
Andrews, D.M., Barton, D.C., Czapka, S.C., Kolka, R.K., and Sweeney, B.W. (2010) Influence of tree shelters on seedling success in an afforested riparian zone. New Forests, 39, 157-167.
Andriesse, J.P. (1988) Nature and management of tropical peat soils. http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5872e/x5872e00.htm. Rome, Italy
Athie, S., and Dias, M.M. (2014) Use of perches and seed dispersal by birds in an abandoned pasture in the Porto Ferreira state park, southeastern Brazil. Brazilian Journal of Biology, 76, 80-92.
Balch, J.K., Massad, T.J., Brando, P.M., Nepstad, D.C., and Curran, L.M.(2013)Effects of high frequency understory fires on woody plant regeneration in southeastern Amazonian forests. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 368, 20120157. doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2012.0157
Baustian, J.(2005) Restoration success of backfilling canals in Coastal Louisiana Marshes. Master thesis, Iowa State University, United States.
Bezuijen, M.R., Webb, G.J.W., Hartoyo, P., and Samedi. (2001) Peat swamp forest and the false gharial Tomistoma schlegelii in the Merang River, Eastern Sumatra,Indonesia. Oryx, 3, 301–307.
Bowen, M.R., Bompard, J.M., Anderson, I.P., Guizol, P., and Gouyon, A.(2000) Anthropogenic fires in Indonesia: a view from Sumatra. Report in 1999-2000. Forest fire prevention and control project Palembang, Indonesia.
Borneo Orangutan Survival (BOS) Foundation. (2014) Pengalaman Yayasan BOS dalam restorasi ekosistem hutan rawa gambut di kawasan Mawas Kalimantan Tengah. Annual report. Central Kalimantan, Indonesia.
[Title translation: The experience of BOS-Foundation in peat swamp forest restoration in Mawas area of Central Kalimantan].
Broder, T., Blodau, C., Biester, H., and Knorr, K.H. (2012) Peat decomposition records in three pristine ombrotrophic bogs in southern Patagonia. Biogeosciences, 9,1479-1491.
Brown, N.(1998)Out of control: fires and forestry in Indonesia. Trends Ecology & Evolution, 13, 41.
Cardoso Da Silva, J.M.C., Uhl, C., and Murray, G. (1996) Plant succession, landscape management, and the ecology of frugivorous birds in abandoned Amazonian pastures. Conservation Biology, 10, 491-503.
Carlson, K.M., Curran, L.M., Ratnasari, D., Pittman, A.M., Soares-Filho, B.S., Asner, G.P., Trigg, S.N., Gaveau, D.A., Lawrence, D., and Rodrigues, H.O. (2012) Committed carbon emissions, deforestation, and community land conversion from oil palm plantation expansion in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 109, 7559–64.
Central Kalimantan Peatland Project (CKPP). (2008) Provisional report of the Central Kalimantan Peatland Project. Central Kalimantan, Indonesia.
Certini, G. (2005) Effects of fire on properties of forest soils: a review. Oecologia, 143, 1-10.
Cheyne, S.M., Morrogh-Bernard, H., and MacDonald, D.W. (2009) First flat headed cat photo from Sabangau peat-swamp forest, Indonesian. CATnews 51, 16.
Chittapun, S., Pholpunthin, P., and Segers, H. (2007) Diversity of rotifer fauna from five coastal peat swamps on Phuket Island, southern Thailand. ScienceAsia, 33, 383- 387.
Cleary, D.F.R., and Priadjati, A. (2005) Vegetation responses to burning in a rain forest in Borneo. Plant Ecology, 177, 145-163.
Cooper, D.J., and MacDonald, L.H. (2000) Restoring the vegetation of mined peatlands in the Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado, USA. Restoration Ecology, 8,103–111.
Corlett, R.T. (2009) Seed dispersal distances and plant migration potential in Tropical East Asia. Biotropica, 41, 592-598.
Danielsen, F., Beukema, H., and Burgess, N.D. (2009) Biofuel plantations on forested lands: double jeopardy for biodiversity and climate. Conservation Biology 23, 348–358.
Darmawan, B., Siregar, Y.I., Sukendi, and Zahrah, S. (2015) Physical and chemical peatsoil properties assessment in Kampar Peninsular Region Sumatra, Indonesia.
International Journal of Science and Research, 4, 157-178.
Del Moral, R., Lawrence, R., and Jan, P.B. (2006) Insights gained from succession for the restoration of landscape structure and function. Linking Restoration and Ecological Succession (eds. L.R. Walker), pp. 19-55. Springer, New York.
Desiantoro, M. (2004) Respon stakeholders terhadap kerusakan hutan tanam nasional. Master thesis, Universitas Diponegoro, Semarang.
[Title translation: The stakeholders’ responses for damaged forests and the national park].
Dohong, A. (2016) An assessment of the restoration efforts of degraded peatland in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. PhD thesis, The University of Queensland, Australia
Dohong, A., and Lilia. (2008) Hydrology Restoration of Ex Mega Rice Project Central Kalimantan Through Canal Blocking Technique: Lessons Learned and Steps Forward. Restoration of Tropical Peatlands (eds W. Henk, R. Jack, and P. Susan), pp. 125-130. ALTERRA, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Fearnside, P. (2005) Deforestation in Brazilian Amazonia: history, rates, and consequences. Conservation Biology, 19, 680-688.
Field, R.D., van der Werf, G.R., and Shen, S.S.P. (2009) Human amplification of drought-induced biomass burning in Indonesia since 1960. Nature Geoscience, 2, 185-188.
Furukawa, Y., Ali, M., Itang, A.M., and Tsuruta, H. (2005) Effect of changing groundwater levels caused by land-use changes on greenhouse gas fluxes from tropical peat lands. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, 71, 81-91.
Gajewski, K., Viau, A., Sawada, M., Atkinson, D., and Wilson, S. (2001) Sphagnum peatland distribution in North America and Eurasia during the past 21,000 years. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 15, 297-310.
Giesen, W. (2009) Guidelines for the Rehabilitation of degraded peat swamp forests in Central Kalimantan: master plan for the conservation and development of the Ex Mega Rice Project Area in Central Kalimantan. Third draft. Royal Netherlands Embassy, Jakarta.
Gonner, C. (1998) Conflicts and fire causes in a district of Kutai Regency, East Kalimantan, Indonesia. Finding causes of the 1997-98 Indonesian forest fires: problems and possibilities (eds P. Vayda), pp. 17-35. WWF Indonesia Forest Fire Project, Jakarta, Indonesia.
Goossens, B., Setchell, J.M., James, S.S., Funk, S.M., Chikhi, L., Abulani, A., Ancrena, M., Lackman-Ancrenaz, I., and Bruford, M.W. (2006) Philopatry and reproductive success in Bornean Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus). Molecular Ecology, 15, 2577-2588.
Gorham, E. (1991) Northern peatland: role in the carbon cycle and probable responses to climatic warming. Ecological Applications, 1, 182–195.
Graham, L.L.B. (2009) A Literature review of the ecology and silviculture of tropical peat swamp forest tree species found naturally occurring in Central Kalimantan. The Kalimantan Forests and Climate Partnership, Jakarta.
Graham, L.L.B., and Page, E.S. (2012) Artificial bird perches for the regeneration of degraded tropical peat swamp forest: a restoration tool with limited potential. Restoration Ecology, 20, 631-637.
Graham, L.L.B., Turjaman, M., and Page, E.S. (2013) Shorea balangeran and Dyera polyphylla (syn. Dyera lowii) as tropical peat swamp forest restoration transplant species: effects of mycorrhizae and level of disturbance. Wetlands Ecology and Management, 21, 307-321.
Günther, A. (2015) Greenhouse gas exchange and its relation to emergent vegetation in a temperate fen. PhD thesis, der Universität Rostock, Germany.
Hakim, S., and Nurulita, S. (2017) Isolation of peat swamp forest foliar endophyte fungi as biofertilizer. Wetlands Environmental Management, 5:10-17.
Hall, K., Spooner, J., and Frederick, D. (2015) A guide for the installation establishment and maintenance of riparian vegetation on restoration projects in North Carolina. North Carolina State University, United states.
Harrison, M. E., Kursani, Santiano, Hendri, Purwanto, A., and Husson, S.J. (2011) Baseline flora assessment and preliminary monitoring protocol in the Katingan peat swamp, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. The Orangutan Tropical Peatland Project for PT. Rimba Makmur Utama/PT. Starling Asia, Palangka Raya, Indonesia.
Harrison, R., and Swinfield, T. (2015) Restoration of logged humid tropical forests: An experimental programme at Harapan Rainforest, Indonesia. Tropical Conservation Science, 8, 4-16.
Hirano, T., Segah, H., Harada, T., Limin, S., June, T., Hirata, R., and Osaki, M. (2007)Carbon dioxide balance of a tropical peat swamp forest in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Global Change Biology, 13, 412–425.
Hoffmann, A. A., Hinrichs, A., and Siegert, F. (1999) Fire damage in East Kalimantan in 1997/98 related to land use and vegetation classes: satellite radar inventory results and proposal for further actions. Technical cooperation between Indonesia and Germany Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops (MoFec) and Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), Indonesia.
Heil, A. (2007) Indonesian forest and peat fires: emissions, air quality, and human health. PhD thesis, Geowissenschaften der Universität Hamburg, Germany.
Hooijer, A., Silvius, M., Wösten, H., and Page, S.E. (2006) Assessment of CO2 emissions from drained peatlands in SE Asia. Delft Hydraulics report Q3943, 1st edn.
Holl, K.D. (1998) Do bird perching structures elevate seed rain and seedling establishment in abandoned tropical pasture? Restoration Ecology, 6, 253–261.
Holl, K.D., Loik, M.E., Lin, E.H.V., and Samuels, I.A. (2000) Tropical forest restoration in abandoned pastures in Costa Rica: obstacles and opportunities. Restoration Ecology, 8, 339–349.
Hooper, D.U., Chapin, F.S., Ewwel, J.J., Hector, A., Inchausti, P., Lavorel, S., Lawton, H.J., Lodge, D.M., Loreau, M., Naeem, S., Schmid, B., Setälä, H., Symstad, A.J., Vandermeer, J., and Wardle, D.A. (2005) Effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning: a consensus of currents knowledge. Ecological Monographs, 75, 3-35.
Hoscilo, A. (2009) Fire regime, vegetation dynamics and land cover change in Tropical Peatland, Indonesia. PhD thesis, University of Leicester, United Kingdom.
Houterman, J., and Ritzema, H. (2009) Land and water management in the Ex- Mega Rice Project area in Central Kalimantan. Report number 4, Royal Netherlands Embassy, Jakarta.
Ice, G., Neary, D.G., and Adams, P.W. (2004) Effects of wildfire on soils and watershed processes. Forestry, 102, 16–20.
Jaenicke, J., Englhart, S., and Siegert, F. (2011) Monitoring the effect of restoration measures in Indonesian peatlands by radar satellite imagery. Environmental management, 92, 630-638.
Jauhiainen, J., Limin, S., Silvennoinen, H., and Vasander, H. (2008) Carbon dioxide and methane fluxes in drainage affected tropical peat before and after hydrological restoration. Ecology, 89, 3503-3514.
Jauhiainen, J., Page, S.E., and Vasander, H. (2016) Greenhouse gas dynamics in degraded and restored tropical peatlands. Mires and peat, 17, 1-12.
Joosten, H., Marja-Liisa, T.B., and Tol, S. (2012) Peatland guidance for climate change mitigation through conservation, rehabilitation, and sustainable use, 2nd edn. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and Wetlands International, Italy.
Joosten, H., and Clarke, D. (2002) Wise use of mires and peatlands-backgrounds and principles, including a framework for decision-making. International Mire Conservation Group and International Peat Society, Finland.
Jusuf, M.D. (2016) Species distribution model using hyperspectral data application in peatland, Central Kalimantan. Earth and environmental science, 47, 12-44.
Kanninen, M., Murdiyarso, D., Seymour, F., Angelsen, A., Wunder, S., and German, L. (2009). Apakah hutan dapat tumbuh di atas uang?: Implikasi penelitian deforestasi bagi kebijakan yang mendukung REDD. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia.
[Title translation: Do trees grow on money? The implications of deforestation research for policies to promote REDD.].
Kobayashi, S. (2016) Peatland forest in Brunei Darussalam. Tropical peatland ecosystem (eds M. Osaki and N. Tsuji), pp. 75-89. Springer, Japan.
Kolka, R. K., Nelson, E.A., Bonar, R.E., Dulohery, N.C., and Gartner, D. (1998) Restoration of a Forested Wetland in South Carolina. Restoration and management notes, South Carolina.
Könönen, M., Jauhiainen, J., Laiho, R., Kusin, K., and Vasander, H. (2015) Physical and chemical properties of tropical peat under stabilized land uses. Mires and peat, 16, 1-13.
Kottelat, M., Britz, R., Tan, H.H., and Witte, K.E. (2006) Paedocypris, a new genus of Southeast Asian cyprinid fish with a remarkable sexual dimorphism, comprises the world's smallest vertebrate. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 273, 895–899.
Kruger, J.P., Leifeld, J., Glatzel, S., Szidat, S., and Alewell, C. (2015) Biogeochemical indicators of peatland degradation: a case study of a temperate bog in Northern Germany. Biogeosciences, 12, 2861-2871.
Langenfelds, R. L., Francey, R.J., Pak, B.C., Steele, L.P., Lloyd, J., Trudinger, C.M., and Allison, C.E. (2002) Inter-annual growth rate variations of atmospheric CO2 and its d13C, H2, CH4, and CO between 1992 and 1999 linked to biomass burning. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 16, 1-22.
Le, H. D., Smith, C., Herbohn, J., and Harrison, S. (2012) More than just trees: Assessing reforestation success in tropical developing countries. Journal of Rural Studies, 28, 5-19.
Lemire, L. (1997) Backfilling canals to restore Louisiana wetlands. Student online journal, 2, 1-6.
Lunt, P., Allott, T., Anderson, P., Buckler, M., Coupar, A., Jones, P., Labadz, J., Worrall, P., and Evans, M. (ed) (2010) Peatland restoration. United Kingdom.
MacKinnon, K., Gusti. H, Hakimah. H., and Artur. M. (1996) The ecology of Kalimantan. Periplus, Singapore.
Maltby, E., Burbridge, P., and Fraser, A. (1996) Peat and acid sulphate soils: a case study from Vietnam. Tropical lowland peatlands of Southeast Asia (eds E. Malt, C.P. Immirzi, and R.J. Safford), pp. 187–197. Tropical Peatlands, IUCN, Switzerland.
Marozas, V., Armolaitis, K.S., and Aleinikovienė, J. (2013) Changes of ground vegetation, soil chemical properties and microbiota following the surface fires in Scots pine forests. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management, 21, 67-75.
Martin-Ortega, J., Allott, T.E.H., Glenk, K., and Schaafsma, M. (2014) Valuing water quality improvements from peatland restoration: evidence and challenges. Ecosystem Services, 9, 34-43.
Massad, T.J., Balch, J.K., Davidson, E.A., Brando, P.M., Mews, C.L., Porto, P., Quintino, R.M., Vieira, S.A., Marimon, B., and Trumbore, S.E. (2013) Interactions between repeated fire, nutrients, and insect herbivores affect the recovery of diversity in the southern Amazon. Oecologia, 172, 219–229.
Maya. (2009) Canal blocking effective to increase humidity of peatland in Sebangau http://www.wwf.or.id/en/?11060/Tabat-Efektif--Tingkatkan-Kelembaban Gambut-di Sebangau. Central Kalimantan.
McClanahan, T.R., and Wolfe, R.W. (1993) Accelerating forest succession in a fragmented landscape: the role of birds and perches. Conservation Biology, 7, 279-288.
Melling, L., Goh, K.J., Uyo, L.J, and Hatano, R. (2007) Biophysical characteristics of tropical peatland. Proceedings of soil science conference of Malaysia, April 17th-19th 2007 (eds H. Jol, G, Kah, C. Fauziah, L. Melling, O. Haruna, M. Boye, A. Sayok, and S. Balasundram). Malaysian Soil Science Society, Sarawak.
Melling, L., Uyo, L.J., Goh, K.J., Hatano, R., and Osaki, M. (2008) Greenhouse gas fluxes of Loagan Bunut National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia, final report. Conservation and sustainable use of tropical peat swamp forests and associated wetland ecosystems. Malaysia.
Melling, L. (2016) Peatland in Malaysia. Tropical peatland ecosystem (eds M. Osaki and N. Tsuji), pp. 75-89. Springer, Japan.
Montanarella, L., Jones, R.J.A., and Hiederer, R. (2006) The distribution of peatland in Europe. Mire and Peat, 1, 1-10.
Morrogh-Bernard, H. (2011) Effectiveness of dam construction, monitoring, and planting: a case study to restore the damage peatlands of sebangau to their natural hydrological state. The Orangutan Tropical Peatland Project. Central Kalimantan.
Morrogh-Bernard, H., Husson, S., Page, S.E., and Rieley, J.O. (2003) Population status of the Bornean orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus) in the Sebangau peat swamp forest, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Biological Conservation, 110, 141-152.
Morrogh-Bernard, H., Santi, S., Salahudin, Puruanto, A., Ripoll-Capilla, B., Marchant, N.C. (2011) Sabangau Seedling Nursery and Reforestation Project, Report Number 1. The Orangutan Tropical Peatland Project, Palangka Raya, Indonesia.
Murdiyarso, D., Donato, D., Kauffman, J.B., Kurnianto, S., Stidham, M., and Kanninen, M. (2009) Carbon storage in mangrove and peatland ecosystems A preliminary account from plots in Indonesia. Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia.
Neill, C., and Turner, R.E. (1987) Backfilling canals to mitigate wetland dredging in Louisiana coastal marshes. Environmental management, 11, 823-836.
Nuyim, T. (2003) Peat swamp forest rehabilitation and planting in Thailand. National Park, Wildlife and Plant Conservation Department, Thailand.
Notohadiprawiro, T. (1998) Tanah dan lingkungan. Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.
[Title translation: Soil and environment].
Orangutan Foundation International (OFI). (2006) Laporan kebakaran hutan dan lahan di Taman Nasional Tanjung Puting Tahun 2006, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia.
[Title translation: Report on forest fires in National Park Tanjung Puting in 2006].
Orangutan Foundation International (OFI). (2015) Laporan kebakaran hutan dan tahan di Taman Nasional Tanjung Puting Tahun 2015. Central Kalimantan, Indonesia.
[Title translation: Report on forest fires in National Park Tanjung Puting in 2015].
Osaki, M., and N. Tsuji. (2016) Tropical peatland ecosystem. Springer, Japan.
Pandey, A., Das, N., Kumar, B., Rinu, K., and Trivedi, P. (2008) Phosphate solubilization by Penicillium spp. isolated from soil samples of Indian Himalayan region. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 24, 97-102.
Page, S.E., and Waldes, N. (2007) Unlocking the natural resource functions of tropical peatlands: understanding the nature and diversity of peat swamp forest vegetation as a foundation for vegetation restoration studies. Restoration of Tropical Peatlands (eds W. Henk, R. Jack, and P. Susan), pp. 30-38. ALTERRA, Wageningen, the Netherlands.
Page, S.E., Hosciło, A., Wösten, H., Jauhiainen, J., Silvius, M., Rieley, J., Ritzema, H.,Tansey, K., Graham, L.,Vasander, H., and Limin, S. (2009) Restoration ecology of lowland tropical peatlands in Southeast Asia: current knowledge and future research directions. Ecosystems, 12, 888-905.
Page, S.E., Rieley, J.O., and Wüst, R. (2006) Lowland tropical peatlands of Southeast Asia. Peatlands: evolution and records of environmental and climate changes, developments in earth surface processes series (eds P. Martini, A. Martinez Cortizas, and W. Chesworth), pp. 145-172. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
Page, S.E., Rieley, J.O., Banks, C.J. (2011) Global and regional importance of the tropical peatland carbon pool. Global Change Biology, 17, 798–818.
Page, S.E., Rieley, J.O., Shotyk, O.W., and Weiss, D. (1999) Interdependence of peat and vegetation in a tropical peat swamp forest. The royal society, 354, 1885-1897
Page, S.E., Siegert, F., Rieley, J.O., Boehm, H.D.V., Jaya, A., and Limin, S. (2002) The amount of carbon released from peat and forest fires in Indonesia during 1997. Nature, 420, 61–65.
Phillips, V.D. (1998) Peat swamp ecology and sustainable development in Borneo. Biodiversity and Conservation, 7, 651–671.
Potter, L., and Lee, J. (1998) Tree planting in Indonesia: trends, impacts and direction. Program on the underlying causes of deforestation. Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia.
Posa, M.R.C., Wijedasa, L.S., and Richard, T.C. (2011) Biodiversity and Conservation of Tropical Peat Swamp Forest. BioScience, 61, 49–57.
Putra, E., Hayasaka, H., Takahashi, H., and Usup, A. (2008) Recent peat fire activity in the mega rice project area Central Kalimantan Indonesia. Journal of disaster research, 3, 1-6.
Quinten, M.C., Waltert, M., Syamsuri, F., and Hodges, J.K. (2009) Peat swamp forest supports high primate densities on Siberut Island, Sumatra, Indonesia. Oryx, 44, 147-151.
Reijnders, L., and Huijbregts, M.A.J. (2008) Palm oil and the emission of carbon-based greenhouse gases. Journal of Cleaner Production, 16, 477–482.
Ritzema, H., Limin, S., Kusin, K., Jauhiainen, J., and Wösten, H. (2014) Canal blocking strategies for hydrological restoration of degraded tropical peatlands in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Catena, 114, 11-20.
Rustini, A. (2015) Rezim air tanah dan emisi gas rumah kaca di hutan rawa gambut PT. Rimba Makmur Utama, Katingan, Kalimantan Tengah. Thesis. Institut Pertanian Bogor Bogor, Indonesia.
[Title translation: Groundwater regime and greenhouse gas emissions in peat swamp forest of PT. Rimba Makmur Utama, Katingan, Central Kalimantan].
Rydin, H., and Jeglum, J.K. (2013) The biology of peatlands. Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom.
Saharjo, B. H., and. Nurhayati, A.D. (2003) The changes in chemical and physical properties of fibric following burning. Jurnal tanah dan lingkungan, 5, 1-6.
Schumann, M., and Joosten, H. (2008) Global peatland restoration manual. Greifswald University, Germany.
Scott, R., Pattanakaew, P., Maxwell, J.F., Elliott, S., and Gale, G. (1999) The effect of artificial perches and local vegetation on bird-dispersed seed deposition into regenerating sites. King Mongkut's University of Technology-Thonburi, Thailand.
Siegert, F., Zhukov, B., Oertel, D., Limin, S., Page, S.E., Rieley, J.O. (2004) Peat fires detected by the BIRD satellite. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 25, 3221–3230.
Shiels, A.B., and Walker, L.R.(2003) Bird perches increase forest seeds on Puerto Rican landslides. Restoration Ecology, 11, 457–465.
Shiodera, S., Atikah, T.D., Rahajoe, J.S., Apandi, I., Haraguchi, A., Afentina, and Kohyama, T. (2012) Impact of peat-fire disturbance to forest structure in tropical peat forest in Central Kalimantan Indonesia. Hokkaido University, Japan.
Simbolon, H.(2004) Proses awal pemulihan hutan gambut Kelampangan Kalimantan Tengah pasca kebakaran hutan Desember 1997 dan September 2002. Berita biologi, 7, 145-154.
[Title transplation: The initial process of restoring peatland forest of Kelampangan, Central Kalimantan after forest fires of December 1997 and September 2002].
Stanturf, J.A., van Oosten, C., Netzer, D.A., Coleman, M.D., and Portwood, C.J. (2001) Ecology and silviculture of poplar plantations. Poplar Culture in North America. (eds D.I. Dickmann, J.G. Isebrands, J.E. Eckenwalder, and J. Richardson), pp. 153-206. National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Canada.
St Clair, T., Duever, M., Loftin, K., and Powers, E. (2011) Canal backfilling for marsh restoration. Scientific and Technical Knowledge Gained in Everglades Restoration, 1, 41-44.
Stolle, F., Chomitz, K.M., Lambin, E.F., and Tomich, T.P. (2003) Land use and vegetation fires in Jambi province Sumatra, Indonesia. Forest Ecology and Management, 179: 277–292.
Suhud, M., and Saleh, C. (2007) Dampak perubahan iklim terhadap habitat Orangutan. World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)-Indonesia, Jakarta, Indonesia.
[Title translation: The impact of climate change on Orangutan’s habitat].
Sumargo, W., Soelthon, G., Nainggolan, N.F., and Isnenti, A. (2011) Potret Keadaan Hutan Indonesia periode 2000-2009, 1st edn . Forest Wacth Indonesia. Jakarta.
[Title translation: Portrait of the Indonesian Forest from 2000 to 2009].
Sunaryo, and Girmansyah, D. (2015) Identifikasi tumbuhan asing invasif di Taman Nasional Tanjung Puting, Kalimantan Tengah. Prosiding seminar nasional masyarakat biodiversitas indonesia, 1:1034-1039.
[Title translation: Identification of invasive species in National Park Tanjung Puting, Central Kalimantan].
Suryadiputra, N., Dohong, A., Waspodo, R.S.B., Muslihat, L., Lubis, I.R., Hasudungan, F., and Wibisono, I.T.C. (2005) Panduan penyekatan parit dan saluran di lahan gambut bersama masyarakat. Wetlands International-Indonesia Programme, Bogor, Indonesia.
[Title translation: Guideline of canal blocking in peatland communities].
Susilo, G. E., Yamamoto, K., Imai,T., Inoue, T., Takahashi, H., Ishii, Y.,Fukami, H., Koizumi, K., and Kusin, K. (2013) Effect of canal damming on the surface water level stability in the tropical peatland area. Journal of Water and Environment Technology, 11, 263-274.
Suyanto, N., Khususiyah, I., Sardi, Y., Buana, and Van Noordwijk, M. (2009) Analysis of local livelihoods from past to present in the Central Kalimantan ex-mega rice project area. Working paper number 94. World Agroforestry Centre, Bogor, Indonesia.
Tawaraya, K. (2003) Arbuscular mycorrhizal dependency of different plant species and cultivars. Journal of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 49, 655–668.
Toriyama, J., Takahashi, T., Nishimura, S., Sato, T., Monda, Y., Saito, H., Awaya, A.Y., Limin, S., Susanto, A.R., Darma, F., Krisyoyo, and Kiyono, Y. (2014) Estimation of fuel mass and its loss during a forest fire in peat swamp forests of Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Forest Ecology and Management 314, 1-8.
Turner, R.E., Lee, J.M., and Neil, C. (1994) Backfilling canals as a wetland restoration technique in Coastal Louisiana. U.S. Department of the Interior Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region, New Orleans, Lousiana.
Usup, A., Hashimoto, Y., Takahashi, H., and Hayasaka, H. (2004) Combustion and thermal characteristics of peat fire in tropical peatland in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Tropics, 14, 1-19.
Van der Werf, G.R., Dempewolf, J., Trigg, S.N., Randerson, J.T., Giglio, L., Murdiyarso, D., Peters, W., Morton, D.C., Collatz, G.J., Dolman, A.J., and DeFries, R.S. (2008) Climate regulation of fire emissions and deforestation in equatorial Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105, 20350–20355.
Van der Werf, G.R., Randerson, J.T., Giglio, L., Collatz, G.J., Kasibhatla, P.S., and Arellano Jr., A.S. (2006) Interannual variability in global biomass burning emissions from 1997 to 2004. Atmospheric Chemistry and Physics, 6, 3423–3441.
Van Eijk, P., and Leenman, P.H. (2004) Regeneration of fire degraded peat swamp forest in Berbak National Park and implementation replanting programs. Water for food & ecosystems program project on: promoting the river basin and ecosystem approach for sustainable management of SE Asian lowland peat swamp forests. Wageningen, The Netherlands.
Veloo, R., Eric, V.R., Paramananthan, S. (2014) Peat characteristics and its impact on oil palm yield. Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences, 72, 33–40.
Whitmore, T.C. 1984. An Introduction to Tropical Rain Forests, 2nd edn. Oxford, United Kingdom.
Wibowo, A.M., Suharti, A.P.S., Sagala, H.H., and Noordwijk, M.V. (1997) Fire management on Imperata grasslands as part of agroforestry development in Indonesia. Agroforestry Systems, 36, 203–217.
Wösten, J.H.M., Van den Berg, J., Van Eijk, P., Gevers, G.J.M., Giesen, W.B.J.T., Hooijer, A., Idris, A., Leenman, P.H., Satriadi Rais Dipa, Siderius, C., Silvius, M.J., Suryadiputra, N., and Wibisono, I.W. (2006) Interrelationships between hydrology and ecology in fire degraded tropical peat swamp forests. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 22, 157–174.
Wowor, D., Muthu, V., Meier, R., Balke, M., Cai, Y., and Ng, P.K. (2009) Evolution of life history traits in Asian freshwater prawns of the genus Macrobrachium(Crustacea: Decapoda: Palaemonidae) based on multilocus molecular phylogenetic analysis. Molecular phylogenetics and evolution, 52, 340-350.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). (2009) Mitigating climate through peat restoration in Central Kalimantan.
https://www.wwf.or.id/?13500/Mitigating-Climate-Change-through-Peat Restoration-in-Central-Kalimantan. Central Kalimantan, Indonesia.
World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF)-Sebangau Project. (2012) Rewetting of tropical peat swamp forest in Sebangau National Park Central Kalimantan, Indonesia, 2nd edn. WWF-Indonesia, Indonesia.
Xaud, H.A.M., Martins, F., and dos Santos, J.R. (2013) Tropical forest degradation by mega fires in the northern Brazilian Amazon. Forest Ecology and Management, 294, 97–106.
Yeager, C.P., Andrew, J.M., Claudia, M.S., Colin, A.C. (2003) Effects of fires on peat swamp and lowland dipterocarp forests in Kalimantan, Indonesia. Tropical Biodiversity, 8, 121-138.