In this paper I look at a rural area in Eastern Taiwan where an Indigenous Kavalan community and an Indigenous Amis community share a river. The JiaLang River is an important resource for their livelihood, providing adequate water drinking and irrigation in each village, and was once a food source. It has undergone two commons dilemmas which the communities have needed to adapt to; the first came from the influx of modern economy and refrigeration which forever changed their traditional interactions with the river, and the second came in the form of development, greatly affecting the river’s biodiversity. Community-Based Natural Resource Management, and Local Knowledge are combined to increase their ability to adapt to changes, not only protecting the river, but also their traditional culture. However this has not been an easy task; each Indigenous community has very different language, culture, religion, and history, which once made communication difficult and led to conflict. Inter-marriage and friendship led to their current indifference, but they still lack collaborative efforts. Today there is a Multi-Stakeholder Platform implementing concepts of SEPLS and Satoyama, working with the two communities and helping to both develop the area, and to help foster cooperation. I use an anthropological framework to establish the JiaLang River as a focal point to view the connections and divisions between the two communities, and how they have learned to adapt to both environmental and social changes over time.
Key Words: Community-Based Natural Resource Management, Adaptive Management, Local Knowledge, River Use, Intra-Tribal Relationships, Community-Based Conflict

A Rivers Shape: Changes in Landscape and People on a Shared Stream
Acknowledgements
Abstract
Table of Contents I
Tables III
Figures IV
Images V
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Research Purpose 5
1.3 Research Questions 5
Chapter 2: Literature Review 7
2.1 The Beginning of Common Pool Resource Policies 7
2.2 Policy implications and government actions 8
2.3 A Theory in Question 9
2.4 Rule-Making for Commons Systems 10
2.5 Common Pool Resource Situations and Dilemmas 16
2.6 Local Knowledge and Community-Based Natural Resource Management 20
2.7 Reinserting Humanity into Nature 24
2.8 Communities, Conservation, and Conflict Management 26
Chapter 3: Methodology 35
Chapter 4: Results and Discussion 41
4.1 Finding Place in Space 42
4.1.1 A History of Community-Based Natural Resource Management 45
4.1.2 Importance of Water 48
4.1.3 Pollution 52
4.1.4 Hunting 53
4.1.5 Fishing and River Trapping 55
4.1.6 Biodiversity Depletion 56
4.1.7 Construction 58
4.1.8 Poaching and outside influence 60
4.2 Implementing (Indigenous) Local Knowledge 62
4.3 Conflict and Cooperation 66
4.3.1 Forgetting the Past 68
4.3.2 Bridging the Gap 69
4.3.3 One road in 74
4.3.4 Conflict and School Life 75
4.3.5 Conflict Escalation 77
4.3.6 Widening the Gap 79
4.3.7 Common Goals 81
4.3.8 Connecting the Past and Present 85
Chapter 5: Conclusion 89
5.1 Conclusions 89
5.2 Future Research 93
Bibliography 95
Appendix A: Formal Interview Questionnaires 107

Bibliography
Acedo-Carmona, C. and Gomila, A. (2015). Trust matters: a cross-cultural comparison of Northern Ghana and Oaxaca groups. Frontiers in Psychology, Vol. 6, Article 661
Acheson, J. (2011). Ostrom for anthropologists. International Journal of the Commons, 5(2), 319–339. http://doi.org/10.18352/ijc.245
Adger, W.N. (2000). Social and ecological resilience: are they related? Progress in Human Geography, 24 (3), 347–364. https://doi.org/10.1191/030913200701540465
Agnew, J.A. and Duncan, J.S. (1989). The power of place: Bringing together geographical and sociological imaginations. Boston: Unwin Hyman Publishers.
Agrawal, A. and Gibson, C. (1999). Enchantment and Disenchantment: The Role of Community in Natural Resource Conservation, World Development, Elsevier, vol. 27(4), pages 629-649, April, 1999.
Agrawal, A. (2002). Common resources and institutional sustainability. In E. Ostrom, T. Dietz, N. Dolšak, P. C. Stern, S. Stonich, E. U. Weber (Eds.) & Committee on the Human Dimensions of Global Change, Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education, The drama of the commons (p. 41–85). National Academy Press.
Agrawal, A. (2005). Environmentality: Technologies of Government and Making of Subjects. Durham: Duke University Press.
Agrawal, A. and Ostrom, E. (2008). "Decentralization and Community-Based Forestry: Learning from Experience." In Decentralization, Forests and Rural Communities: Policy Outcomes in South and Southeast Asia. E.L. Webb & G.P. Shivakoti, eds. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.
Allan, C. and Stankey, G.H. (2009). Adaptive Environmental Management: A Practitioner's Guide. Springer Science & Business Media.
Armitage, D. (2005). Adaptive Capacity and Community-Based Natural Resource Management. Environmental management. 35(6):703-715
Armitage, D. (2007). Building resilient livelihoods through adaptive co-management: the role of adaptive capacity. Pages 62–82 in D. Armitage, F. Berkes, and N. Doubleday, editors. Adaptive co-management: collaboration, learning and multilevel governance. UBC Press, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Armitage, D., Marschke, M. and Plummer, R. (2008). Adaptive co-management and the paradox of learning. Global Environmental Change 18:86–98. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j. Gloenvcha.2007.07.002
Armitage, D., Plummer, R., Berkes, F., Arthur, R.I., Davidson-Hunt, I.J., Diduck, A., Doubleday, N.C., Johnson, D.S., Marschke, M., McConney, P., Pinkerton, E.W. and Wollenberg. E.K. (2009). Adaptive co-management for social– ecological complexity. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 6:95–102. http://dx.doi.org/10.1890/070089
Ascher, W. (1995). Communities and Sustainable Forestry in Developing Countries. San Francisco: ICS Press.
Atkins, S., Lewin, S., Smith, H., Engel, M., Fretheim, A. and Volmink, J. (2008). Conducting a meta-ethnography of qualitative literature: Lessons learnt. BMC Medical Research Methodology 8:21-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-8-21
Axelrod, R. (2006). The Evolution of Cooperation (Revised ed.), Perseus Books Group, ISBN 0-465-00564-0
Ayles, B., Bell, G.R. and Hoyt, A. (2007). Adaptive fisheries co-management in the western Canadian Arctic. Pages 125– 150 in D. Armitage, F. Berkes, and N. Doubleday, editors. Adaptive co-management: collaboration, learning, and multilevel governance. UBC Press, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Bark, R. (2012). Adaptive Basin Governance. Environmental Science & Policy 19-20;167-177
Behfar, K. J., Peterson, R.S., Mannix, E.A. and Trochim, W.M.K. (2008). The critical role of conflict resolution in teams: A close look at the links between conflict type, conflict management strategies, and team outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93 (1). pp. 170-188. ISSN 0021-9010
Bennett, N. (2017). Conservation social science: Understanding and integrating human dimensions to improve conservation, Biological Conservation, Volume 205, 2017, Pages 93-108
Berkes, F. (2004), Rethinking Community‐Based Conservation. Conservation Biology, 18: 621-630. doi:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00077.x
Berkes, F. (2009). Evolution of co-management: role of knowledge generation, bridging organizations and social learning. Journal of Environmental Management 90:1692– 1702. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2008.12.001
Berkes, F. (2012). Sacred Ecology. Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge
Berkes, F., Armitage, D. and Doubleday, N. (2007). Synthesis: adapting, innovating, evolving. Pages 308–327 in D. Armitage, F. Berkes, and N. Doubleday, editors. Adaptive comanagement: collaboration, learning, and multi-level governance. UBC Press, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Berkes, F. and Folke, C. (2000). Linking Social and Ecological Systems: Management Practices and Social Mechanisms for Building Resilience. Cambridge University Press
Blonquist, W. and Ostrom, E. (1985). Institutional Capacity and the Resolution of a Commons Dilemma. Policy Studies Review, November 1985, Vol. 5, No. 2
Bodin, Ö. and Crona, B. I (2008). Management of natural resources at the community level: exploring the role of social capital and leadership in a rural fishing community. World Development 36(12):2763–2779. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
Bodin, Ö. and Crona, B. I. (2009). The role of social networks in natural resource governance: what relational patterns make a difference? Global Environmental Change 19(3):366–374.
Bodin, Ö. and Norberg, J. (2005). Information network topologies for enhanced local adaptive management. Environmental Management 35(2):175–193. http://dx.doi.org /10.1007/s00267-004-0036-7
Borghese, E. (1987). Third world development: The role of non-governmental organizations. The OECD Observer, No. 145.
Bown, N.K., Gray, T.S. and Stead, S.M., (2013). Co-management and adaptive co-management: Two modes of governance in a Honduran marine protected area. Marine Policy, Elsevier, vol. 39(C), pages 128-134.
Bratton, M. (1989). The politics of government-NGO relations in Africa. World Development, Elsevier, vol. 17(4), pages 569-587, April.
Bromley, D. (1992). The commons, common property, and environmental policy. Environmental & Resource Economics, Springer;European Association of Environmental and Resource Economists, vol. 2(1), pages 1-17, January.
Buckles, D. (1999.) Cultivating peace: Conflicts and collaboration in natural resource management. London: International Development Research Centre
Caldara, M., McBride, M., Mccarter, M. and Sheremeta, R. (2017). A Study of the Triggers of Conflict and Emotional Reactions. Games. 8. 21. 10.3390/g8020021.
Cardenas, JC., Ahn, T.K. and Ostrom, E. (2004). Communication and Co-operation in a Common-Pool Resource Dilemma: A Field Experiment. In: Huck S. (eds) Advances in Understanding Strategic Behaviour. Palgrave Macmillan, London
Carlsson, L. and Berkes, F. (2005). Co-management: concepts and methodological implications. Journal of Environmental Management 75:65–76. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2 004.11.008
Casey, E.S. (2001). Between geography and philosophy: what does it mean to be in place world? Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 91 (4): 683–693
Castro, A.P. and Nielsen, E. (2001). Indigenous people and co-management: implications for conflict management. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Castro, A.P. and Nielson, E. (2003). Natural Resource Conflict Management Case Studies: An Analysis of Power, Participation and Protected Areas. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Chakravarty-Kaul M. (2013). Severance of a Traditional Grazing Landscape in the Himalayas: Commons and Ecosystems in Crisis?. In: Rotherham I. (eds) Cultural Severance and the Environment. Environmental History, vol 2. Springer, Dordrecht
Chen, D-J. (2014). Assessment of implementation of Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) between bio-prospectors and indigenous peoples in Taiwan. 15th Asian Bioethics Conference
Ciriacy-Wantrup S.V. and Bishop R.C., (1975). "Common Property" as a Concept in Natural Resources Policy. Nat. Res. J. 15, 713–727
Cheng, A., Kruger, L. and Daniels, S. (2003). "Place" as an Integrating Concept in Natural Resource Politics: Propositions for a Social Science Research Agenda, Society & Natural Resources, 16:2, 87-104, DOI: 10.1080/08941920309199
Cox, M., Arnold, G. and Tomás, S.V. (2010). A Review of Design Principles for Community-based Natural Resource Management. Ecology and Society, Vol. 15, No. 4 (Dec 2010)
Cox, S.J.B. (1985). "No tragedy on the Commons" Journal of Environmental Ethics, Vol 7, Spring 1985
Cross, J.E. (2001). What is ‘Sense of Place’?, Archives of the Twelfth Headwaters Conference. Western State College. 2001 November 2-4.
Dahlman, C.J. (1991). "The tragedy of the commons that wasn't: On technical solutions to the institutions game". Population and Environment. 12 (3): 285–296. doi:10.1007/BF01357919.
Dickman, A. (2010). Complexities of Conflict: The Importance of Considering Social Factors for Effectively Resolving Human–Wildlife Conflict. Animal Conservation. 13. 458 - 466. 10.1111/j.1469-1795.2010.00368.x.
Dietz, T., Ostrom, E. and Stern, P.C. (2003). The Struggle to Govern the Commons. Science 302
Digital Museum of Taiwan Indigenous People DMTIP. (2017). Amis. http://www.dmtip.gov.tw/web/en/page/detail?nid=7
Digital Museum of Taiwan Indigenous People DMTIP. (2017). Kavalan. http://www.dmtip.gov.tw/web/en/page/detail?nid=7
Dove, M. and Carpenter, C. (2008). Environmental Anthropology: A Historical Reader. Blackwell Pub, Malden, MA
Druzin, Bryan (2016). "A Plan to strengthen the Paris Agreement". Fordham Law Review. 84: 19–20.
Dwyer, J. and Hodge, I. (2016). Governance structures for social-ecological systems: Assessing institutional options against a social residual claimant,Environmental Science & Policy, Volume 66, 2016, Pages 1-10
Edney, J.J. and Harper, C.S. (1978). The commons dilemma. Environmental Management 2: 491-507
Edwards, V. and Steins, N. (1999). A framework for analysing contextual factors in common pool resource research, Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning, 1:3, 205-221
Engle, N.L., de Bremond, A. and Malone, E.L.. (2014). Towards a resilience indicator framework for making climate-change adaptation decisions. Mitig Adapt Strateg Glob Change19: 1295. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-013-9475-x
Escoba, A. (1998). Whose Knowledge, Whose Nature Biodiversity, Conservation, and the Political Ecology of Social Movement.” Journal of Political Ecology, 5: 53-82.
Fals-Borda, O. (1987). The Application of Participatory Action-Research in Latin America. International Sociology, 2(4), 329–347. https://doi.org/10.1177/026858098700200401
Fernandez-Gimenez, M.E., Ballard, H.L. and Sturtevan, V.E. (2008). Adaptive management and social learning in collaborative and community-based monitoring: a study of five community-based forestry organizations in the western USA. Ecology and Society 13(2): 4.
Finch, B.J. (2008). Operations Now: Supply Chain Profitability and Performance. New York. McGraw-Hill. P.12f
Finn, S.J. (2007). Hobbes: A Guide for the Perplexed. London: Continuum Press.
Folke, C. (2006). Resilience: the emergence of a perspective for social–ecological systems analysis. Global Environmental Change 16:253–267.
FSC (2012). FSC Guidelines for the Implementation of the Right to Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC). Version 1. Forest Stewardship Council (FSC), Bonn
Gadgil, M., Berkes, F. and Folke, C. (1993). Indigenous Knowledge for Biodiversity Conservation. Ambio, 22(2/3), 151-156.
Gardner, R., Ostrom, E. and Walker, J. M. (1990). The Nature of Common-Pool Resource Problems. Rationality and Society, 2(3), 335–358.
Glasl, F. (1982). 'The process of conflict escalation and roles of third parties,' in G. B. J. Bomers and R. B. Peterson, (eds) Conflict management and industrial relations, (pp. 119-140) The Hague: Kluwer Nijhoff Publishing.
Gondo, T. (2011). Adaptive Co-Management of Natural Resources: A Solution or Problem? Journal of Human Ecology. 33(2) 119-131
Gregory, R., Failing, L., and Higgins, P. (2006). "Adaptive management and environmental decision making: A case study application to water use planning," Ecological Economics, Elsevier, vol. 58(2), pages 434-447, June.
Grimble, R. and Wellard, K. (1997). Stakeholder Methodologies in Natural Resource Management: A Review of Principles, Contexts, Experiences and Opportunities. Agricultural Systems, 55, 173-193.
Gu, H. and S. M. Subramanian. (2014). Drivers of change in socio-ecological production landscapes: implications for better management. Ecology and Society 19(1): 41.
Hafner, J., Schlarb, M. and Pinili, P. (2003). Community-based natural resource conflict management: the case of watershed planning in Metro Cebu, the Philippines FAO, Rome (Italy). Forestry Dept.
Hijweege, W. L. (2008). Emergent Practice of Adaptive Collaborative Management in Natural Resource Management in Southern and Eastern Africa. The Netherlands: Wageningen University and Research Centre
Hjortsø, C., Christensen, S. and Tarp, P. (2005). Rapid stakeholder and conflict assessment for natural resource management using cognitive mapping: The case of Damdoi Forest Enterprise, Vietnam, Agriculture and Human Values, Springer;The Agriculture, Food, & Human Values Society (AFHVS), vol. 22(2), pages 149-167, June.
Holling, C.S. (1978). Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management. John Wiley & Sons.
Huang, H.-Y., Zeng, J.-M., Xu, Z.-Y., Liu, X.-R. (2019). Satoyama and Satoumi in Eastern Taiwan. Hualien District Agricultural Research and Extension Station (Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan).
Ichikawa, K. (2013). Understanding Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes in the Context of Cambodia. International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development, 4(1), 57-62
IIRR. (1998). Participatory methods in community-based coastal resource management. 3 vols. International Institute of Rural Reconstruction, Silang, Cavite, Philippines.
IPCC (2014). "Glossary". Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Jehn, K., Mannix, A. and Elizabeth, A. (2001). The Dynamic Nature of Conflict: A Longitudinal Study of Intragroup Conflict and Group Performance. The Academy of Management Journal Vol. 44, No. 2 (Apr., 2001), pp. 238-251
Jusoff, K. and Majid, N. M. (1995). ‘Integrating needs of the local community to conserve forest biodiversity in the State of Kelantan’. Biodiversity and Conservation, 4(1): 108–115
Kao, S.-Y. (1975). Mountain Administration and Mountain Policy Collected Papers in the Institute of Ethnology in Academia Sinica. Taipei, Academia Sinica. 40.
Kazoora, C. (2003). Conflict resolution in the Namanve Peri-Urban Reforestation Project in Uganda. Natural Resource Conflict Management Case Studies: An Analysis of Power, Participation and Protected Areas. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Kellert, S., Mehta, J., Ebbin, S. and Lichtenfeld, L. (2000). Community Natural Resource Management: Promise, Rhetoric, and Reality. Society and Natural Resources. 13. 10.1080/089419200750035575.
Kishk Anaquot Health Research, (2008). Collaborative Research: an “indigenous lens” perspective, Canadian Coalition for Global Health Research, April 2008.
Kiss, A. (1990). Living with Wildlife: Wildlife Resource Management with Local Participation in Africa. The World Bank, Washington DC.
Kohn, E. (2013). How Forests Think: Toward an Anthropology Beyond the Human. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Korten, D.R.K. (1984). People-Centered Development: Contributions Toward Theory and Planning Frameworks. West Hartford, Connecticut: Kumarian Press
Kuan, D.W. (2012). A River Runs Through It: Story of Resource Management, Place Identity and Indigenous Knowledge in Marqwang, Taiwan. Unpublished Dissertation, University of Hawaii
Kuo, W.H.J. (2004). “Nature of Traditional Knowledge and its Protection --- Taiwan's Perspective”, presented at the Forum “The Evolution of the IP-system, especially in Biotechnology-European and Asian Perspectives”, Hanken School of Economics and Business Administration, Helsinki, Finland.
Lansing, J. and Kremer, J. (1993). Emergent Properties of Balinese Water Temple Networks: Coadaptation on a Rugged Fitness Landscape. American Anthropologist. 95. 97-114. 10.1525/aa.1993.95.1.02a00050.
Lebel, L., Anderies, J. M., Campbell, B., Folke, C., Hatfield-Dodds, S., Hughes, T. P. and Wilson, J. (2006). Governance and the capacity to manage resilience in regional social-ecological systems. Ecology and Society 11(1): 19.
Levieil, D. and Orlove, B. (1990). Local Control of Aquatic Resources: Community and Ecology in Lake Titicaca, Peru. American Anthropologist Vol 92. 1990
Malinowsky, B. (2018). Argonautas do Pacífico Ocidental[Argonauts of the Western Pacific] (in Portuguese). 2018 Translation Ubu Editora LTDA. ISBN 9788592886936.
McKean, M.A. (1992). Success on the Commons: A Comparative Examination of Institutions for Common Property Resource Management. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 4(3), 247–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/0951692892004003002
Molina, J., Lubbers, M., Valenzuela‐García, H. and Gómez‐Mestres, S. (2017). Cooperation and competition in social anthropology. Anthropology Today, 33:11-14.
Morris, M., Williams, K., Leung, K., Larrick, R., Mendoza, M., Bhatnagar, D. and Hu, J. (1998). Conflict Management Style: Accounting for Cross-National Differences. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(4), 729-747.
Nakamura, K. and Duraiappah, A. (2013). The Japan Satoyama Satoumi assessment: Objectives, focus and approach. Satoyama/Satoumi Ecosystems and Human Well-Being
Ndelu, T. (1998). Conflict management and peace building through community development. Community Development Journal, 33(2): 109–116
Olomola, A. (1993) The Traditional Approach to Sustainable Management of Common Property Fishery Resources in Nigeria MAST 1993,6(1/2): 92-109
Olson, M. (1971). [1965]. The Logic of Collective Action: Public Goods and the Theory of Groups (Revised ed.). Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-53751-
O’Reilly, S. (1997). The contribution of community development to peace-building: World Vision’s Area Development Programmes. London: World Vision.
Orlove, B. and Brush, S. (1996). Anthropology and the Conservation of Biodiversity. Annual Review of Anthropology. 25. 329-352. 10.1146/annurev.anthro.25.1.329.
Österblom, H., Folke, C. (2013). Emergence of global adaptive governance for stewardship of regional marine resources. Ecology and Society 18(2): 4
Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the Commons: The Evolution of Institutions for Collective Action. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ostrom, E. (1999). "Coping with Tragedies of the Commons." Annual Review of Political Science 2:493-535.
Ostrom, E. (2007). A diagnostic approach for going beyond panaceas. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 104:15181–15187.
Ostrom, E. (2009). A General Framework for analyzing sustainability of social-ecological systems. Science 24(5939): 419-422. DOI: 10.1126/science.1172133
Ostrom, E., Dietz, T., Dolsak, N., Stern, P. C., Stonich, S. and Weber, E.U. editors. (2002). The Drama of the Commons. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., USA.
Ostrom, E., Gardner, R. and Walker, J.M., (1994). Rules, games, & common-pool resources. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Plummer, R., Crona, B., Armitage, D.., Olsson, P., Tengö, M. and Yudina, O. (2012). Adaptive comanagement: a systematic review and analysis. Ecology and Society 17(3): 11.
Plutynski, A. (2008). Ecology and the Environment. in Oxford Handbook to Philosophy of Biology. Ruse, M. and D. Hull, (Eds.) Oxford University Press.
Pondy, L.R. (1967). Organizational Conflict: Concepts and Models. Administrative Science Quarterly, 13, 296-320. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2391553
Prins, C., Castillo, O. and Almendares, R. (2001). From Conflict to Co-Management: the case of the Blue Forest. FAO
Redpath, S.M., Young, J., Evely, A., Adams, W. M., Sutherland, W. J., Whitehouse, A. and Gutiérrez, R. J. (2013). Understanding and managing conservation conflicts. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 28(2), 100-109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2012.08.021
Rotherham, I.D. (2013). Cultural Severance and the Environment: The Ending of Traditional and Customary Practice on Commons and Landscapes Managed in Common. Cultural Severance and the Environment.
Sally, D. (1995). Conversation and Cooperation in Social Dilemmas: A Meta-Analysis of Experiments from 1958 to 1992, Rationality and Society 7(1):58-92
Shackeroff, J., Campbell, M. and Lisa, M. (2007). Traditional Ecological Knowledge in Conservation Research: Problems and Prospects for their Constructive Engagement. Conservation and Society, Vol: 5; 3
Shrestha, T.K., (1990). Resource ecology of the Himalayan waters. Curriculum Development Centre, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal. 645 p.
Sillitoe, P. (1996). A Place Against Time : land and environment in the Papua New Guinea highlands. Amsterdam : Harwood Academic Publishers.
Sillitoe, P., Bicker, A. and Pottier, J. (2004). Investigating Local Knowledge: New Directions, New Approaches. Burlington: Ashgate Publisher.
Sillitoe, P. (2007). Local Science vs. Global Science: Approaches to Indigenous Knowledge in International Development. New York: Berghahn Books.
Simberloff, D. (2014). The ‘‘Balance of Nature’’—Evolution of a Panchreston. PLoS Biol 12(10): e1001963
Simms, R. (2016). Navigating Tension in Watershed Governance. Geoforum 73, 2016: 6-16
Sponsel, L. E., Headland, T. N. and Bailey R. C. (1996). Tropical Deforestation: The Human Dimension. Columbia University Press, New York.
Stankey, G. Clark, R. and Bormann, B. (2005). Adaptive Management of Natural Resources: Theory, Concepts, and Management Institutions. USDA General Technical Report PNW-GTR-654, August 2005
Subramanian, S. M., Chakraborty, S. and Ichikawa, K. (2017). Mainstreaming Socio-Ecological Production Landscape Management Approaches. UNU-IAS Policy Brief Series. United Nations University Institute for the Advanced Study of Sustainability.
Suleiman, R., and Budescu, D.V. (1999). Common Pool Resource (CPR) dilemmas with incomplete information. In D. V. Budescu, I. Erev, & R. Zwick (Eds.), Games and human behavior: Essays in honor of Amnon Rapoport (p. 387–410). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Suzuki, K., Dublin, D., Tsuji, N. and Osaki, M. (2015). Evaluation of SATOYAMA – human and nature coexistence system- in applying Satoyama Agricultural Development Tool (SADT) and Happiness Survey in Sabah State, Malaysia. NeBIO Vol. 6, No. 3, September 2015, 1 - 11 ISSN 2278-2281
Trawick, P. (2001). The Moral Economy of Water: Equity and Antiquity in the Andean Commons American Anthropologist, Vol. 103, No. 2 (Jun., 2001), pp. 361-379
Tseng, J.-M., Lin, L., Xu, Z.-Y., Lin, T.-Y., Huang, A.-W., Li, G.-Z. and Fan, M.-L. (2015). Ecological Farming In Hualien. Hualien District Agricultural Research and Extension Station (Council of Agriculture, Executive Yuan).
Tuan, Y.F. (1977). Space and Place: The Perspective of Experience. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.
Tyler, S.R. (1999). Policy Implication of Natural Resource Conflict Management. In: Buckles, D., Ed., Cultivating Peace: Conflict and Collaboration in Natural Resource Management, World Bank Institute, Washington DC, 264-280.
USGS. (2019). How Much Water is There on Earth? https://www.usgs.gov/special-topic/water-science-school/science/how-much-water-there-earth?qt-science_center_objects=0#qt-science_center_objects
Wade, R. (1987). The management of common Property Resources: Finding a Cooperative Solution. The World Bank Research Observer 2(2):219-34.
Warner, M. (1999). ‘Conflict management and consensus-building in community-based natural resource projects: Context, principles, tools and training’. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Warner, M. (2000). Conflict Management in Community-Based Natural Resource Projects: Experiences from Fiji and Papua New Guinea. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Warner, M. and Jones, P. (1999). ‘Assessing the need to manage conflict in community-based natural resource projects’. Natural Resources Perspective, Paper 35. London: Overseas Development Institute.
Western, D., Wright, R.M. and Strum, S.C. (1994). Natural Connections: Perspectives in Community-Based Conservation. Island Press, Washington DC.
Williams, B.K. (2011). Adaptive management of natural resources--framework and issues. Journal of environmental management, 92 5, 1346-53 .
Williams, D.R. and Stewart, S.I. (1998). Sense of Place : An Elusive Concept That Is Finding A Home In Eco Management.
Williams, T. and Hardison, P. (2013). Culture, law, risk and governance: contexts of traditional knowledge in climate change adaptation Climatic Change 120: 531. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-013-0850-0
Wolf, E. R. (1982). Europe and the people without history. Berkeley: University of California Press
Yasmi, Y., Schanz, H. and Salim, A. (2006). Manifestation of conflict escalation in natural resource management, Environmental Science & Policy, Volume 9, Issue 6, 2006, Pages 538-546, ISSN 1462-9011
沈怡螢. (2008). 葛瑪蘭新社部落生活空間資源之利用，變遷與再發現. National Taiwan Normal University. Masters Thesis