This study examined whether need for stress release affects intention to travel, and whether intention to travel affects intention to travel in a group during the COVID-19 period. It also examined whether these relationships are affected by heightened sensitivity to threat, perception of infectability, social anxiety, and tourist xenophobia. Data were collected from 378 Slovakian consumers and analysed using AMOS structural equation modelling and SPSS PROCESS. The findings revealed that need for stress release affects travel intention, and that this relationship is moderated by heightened sensitivity to threat, threat to others and perception of infectability. Furthermore, intention to travel was found to positively affect intention to travel in a group. The hypothesised moderating effects of social anxiety and tourist xenophobia on the relationship between intention to travel and intention to travel in a group were not supported by the findings. The study’s findings provide important additions to travel research literature. They also provide important implications to managers in the travel industry.
Keywords: Intention to travel; need for stress release; heightened sensitivity to threat; threat to others; perception of infectability; social anxiety; tourist xenophobia, pandemic

Abstract i
List of Tables iv
List of Figures v
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Research Gap 2
1.3 Research Purpose 2
2.1 Need for stress release 4
2.2 Intention to travel 5
2.3 Intention to travel in a group 5
2.4 Heightened sensitivity to threat 8
2.5 Threat to others 9
2.6 Perception of infectability 9
2.7 Social anxiety 10
2.8 Tourist xenophobia 10
2.9 Control Variables 11
CHAPTER 3 HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT AND RESEARCH FRAMEWORK 12
3.1 Hypotheses development 12
3.1.1 The effect of need for stress release on intention to travel 12
3.1.2 The effect of intention to travel on intention to travel in a group 13
3.1.3 Heightened sensitivity to threat as moderator 13
3.1.4 Threat to others as moderator 14
3.1.5 Perception of infectability as moderator 15
3.1.6 Social anxiety as moderator 16
3.1.7 Tourist xenophobia as moderator 17
3.2 Research Framework 17
CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 19
4.1 Research Measures 19
4.2 Data Collection 19
CHAPTER 5 DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 22
5.1 Data Analysis Procedure 22
5.2 Sample Description 22
5.2.1 Sample structure 22
5.2.2 Descriptive statistics 23
5.3 Common Method Variance 25
5.4 Validity and Reliability Analysis 25
5.4.1 Convergent validity 25
5.4.2 Reliability 26
5.4.3 Discriminant validity 27
5.5 Model Fit 28
5.5.1 Absolute fit measures 29
5.5.2 Incremental fit measures 29
5.5.3 Parsimonious fit measures 29
5.6 Examination of Research Hypotheses 30
5.6.1 Fit of the structural model 30
5.6.2 Direct effects 30
5.6.3 Moderation results 31
CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS 38
6.1 Discussion 38
6.2 Theoretical implications 40
6.3 Managerial implications 41
6.4 Limitations and areas for further research 42
REFERENCES 44
Appendix: Survey Questionnaire 57

 
List of Tables
Page
Table 4-1. Research constructs, measurement items and their sources 17
Table 5-1. Sample structure 20
Table 5-2. Construct Descriptives 21
Table 5-3. Common method variance: Harman’s One Factor Test 23
Table 5-4. Convergent validity and reliability 24
Table 5-5. Discriminant validity: Fornell and Larcker Criterion 25
Table 5-6. Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratios 26
Table 5-7. Fit statistics for the measurement model 27
Table 5-8. Fit statistics for the structural model 28
Table 5-9. Results of tests for direct effects 28
Table 5-10. The moderating effect of heightened sensitivity to threat 29
Table 5-11. The moderating effect of threat to others 30
Table 5-12. The moderating effect of perception of infectability 31
Table 5-13. The moderating effect of social anxiety 32
Table 5-14. The moderating effect of tourist xenophobia 33
Table 5-15. Summary of results 33
 
List of Figures
Page
Figure 3-1. Research Framework 16
Figure 5-1. Moderation Plot: The Moderating Role of Heightened Sensitivity Threat 30
Figure 5-2. Moderation Plot: The Moderating Role of Threat to Others 31
Figure 5-3. Moderation Plot: The Moderating Role of Perceived Infectability 32
Figure 5-4. Path Estimates for the Hypothesised Relationships 35

Akers, R. L., & Krohn, M. D. (1979). Lanza-Kaduce, L. y Radosevich, M.(1979). Social Learning and Deviant Behavior: A Specific Test of a General Theory. American Sociological Review, 44(4), 636-655.
Al-Gasawneh, J. A., & Al-Adamat, A. M. (2020). The relationship between perceived destination image, social media interaction and travel intentions relating to Neom city. Academy of Strategic Management Journal, 19(2), 1-12.
Al Zubayer, A., Rahman, M. E., Islam, M. B., Babu, S. Z. D., Rahman, Q. M., Bhuiyan, M. R. A. M., ... & Habib, R. B. (2020). Psychological states of Bangladeshi people four months after the COVID-19 pandemic: An online survey. Heliyon, 6(9), e05057.
Alvarex, M. & Asugman, G. (2005). Explorers versus planners – A study of Turkish tourists. Annals of Tourism Research, 33(2), 319-338. Bowen, D. (2001). Antecedents of consumer satisfaction and dis-satisfaction (CS/D) on long-haul inclusive tour – A reality check on theoretical considerations. Tourism Management, 22(1), 49-61.
American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (Fifth ed.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing. p. 189. ISBN 978-0-89042-5558
Anderson, J. C., & Gerbing, D. W. (1988). Structural equation modelling in practice: A review and recommended two-step approach. Psychological Bulletin, 103(3), 411-423.
Andriotis, K., & Vaughan, R. D. (2003). Urban residents’ _attitudes toward tourism development: The case of Crete. Journal of Travel Research, 42(2), 172–185.
Anxiety disorder (2018,May 04). Retrieved from : https://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/anxiety/symptoms-causes/syc-20350961
Arafat, S. Y., Kar, S. K., Menon, V., Kaliamoorthy, C., Mukherjee, S., Alradie-Mohamed, A., ... & Kabir, R. (2020). Panic buying: An insight from the content analysis of media reports during COVID-19 pandemic. Neurology, Psychiatry and Brain Research, 37, 100-103.
Aryee, M. J., Jaffe, A. E., Corrada-Bravo, H., Ladd-Acosta, C., Feinberg, A. P., Hansen, K. D., & Irizarry, R. A. (2014). Minfi: a flexible and comprehensive Bioconductor package for the analysis of Infinium DNA methylation microarrays. Bioinformatics, 30(10), 1363-1369.
Asmundson, G. J., and Taylor, S. (2020a). Coronaphobia: fear and the 2019-nCoV outbreak. Journal of anxiety disorder 70:102196. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102196
Asmundson, G. J., and Taylor, S. (2020b). How health anxiety influences responses to viral outbreaks like COVID-19: what all decision-makers, health authorities, and health care professionals need to know. Journal of anxiety disorder .71, 102211– 102211. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2020.102211
Bakioğlu, F., Korkmaz, O., & Ercan, H. (2020). Fear of COVID-19 and Positivity: Mediating Role of Intolerance of Uncertainty, Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1.
Barr, M., Raphael, B., Taylor, M., Stevens, G., Jorm, L., Giffin, M., et al. (2008). Pandemic influenza in Australia: using telephone surveys to measure perceptions of threat and willingness to comply. BMC Infectious Diseases, 8, 117. doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-8-117.
Baumeister, R. F. (2002). Yielding to temptation: self-control failure, impulsive purchasing, and consumer behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 28, 670–676.
Bearden, W. O., & Haws, K. L. (2012). How low spending control harms consumers. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(1), 181-193.
Besson, Emilie K. 2020. COVID-19 (Coronavirus): Panic Buying and Its Impact on Global Health Supply Chains. World Bank. Available online: https://blogs.worldbank.org/health/covid-19-coronavirus-panic-buying-andits-impact-global-health-supply-chains (accessed on 11 October 2020).
Bianchi, C. (2021). Antecedents of tourists’ solo travel intentions. Tourism Review. 77(3), 780-795.
Bikhchandani, S., Hirshleifer, D., & Welch, I. (1992). A theory of fads, fashion, custom, and cultural change as informational cascades. Journal of political Economy, 100(5), 992-1026.
Bouras N, Holt G (2007). Psychiatric and Behavioral Disorders in Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139461306
Bults, M., Beaujean, D. J., de Zwart, O., Kok, G., van Empelen, P., van Steenbergen, J. E., ... & Voeten, H. A. (2011). Perceived risk, anxiety, and behavioural responses of the general public during the early phase of the Influenza A (H1N1) pandemic in the Netherlands: results of three consecutive online surveys. BMC public health, 11(1), 2.
Cha, S., McCleary, K. W. & Uysal, M. (1995). Travel motivations of Japanese overseas travellers: A factor-cluster segmentation approach. Journal of Travel Research, 34(2), 33-39.
Chang, J. C. & Bowie, D. (2005). Tourist satisfaction: A view from a mixed international guided package tour. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 11(4), 303-322.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological bulletin, 98(2), 310.
Corritore, C. L., Kracher, B., & Wiedenbeck, S. (2003). On-line trust: concepts, evolving themes, a model. International journal of human-computer studies, 58(6), 737-758.
Dann, G. (1977). Anomie, ego-enhancement and tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 4(4), 184-194. Enoch, Y. (1996), Contents of tour packages: A cross-cultural comparison. Annals of Tourism Research, 23(3), 599-616.
Droit-Volet S, Gil S, Martinelli N, Andant N, Clinchamps M, Parreira L, et al. (2020). Time and Covid-19 stress in the lockdown situation: Time free, «Dying» of boredom and sadness. Plos One, 28(5), 12.
Eichhorn, B. R. (2014). Common method variance techniques. Cleveland State University, Department of Operations & Supply Chain Management, SAS Institute, Cleveland, OH.
Fisher, R. J. & Price, L. L. (1991). International pleasure travel motivations and post-vacation cultural attitude change. Journal of Leisure Research, 23(3), 193-208.
Flanagin, A. J., Metzger, M. J., Pure, R., Markov, A., & Hartsell, E. (2014). Mitigating risk in ecommerce transactions: perceptions of information credibility and the role of user-generated ratings in product quality and purchase intention. Electronic Commerce Research, 14(1), 1-23.
Fodness, D. & Murray, B. (1999). A model of tourist information search behaviour. Journal of Travel Research, 37(3), 220-230.
Foo, L.-P.; Chin, M.-Y.; Tan, K.-L.; Phuah, K.-T. The impact of COVID-19 on tourism industry in Malaysia. Current Issues Tourism, 2020, 1–5.
Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39-50.
Gilbert, D. & Abdullah, J. (2002). A study of the impact of the expectation of a holiday on and individual’s sense of well-being. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 8(4), 352-361.
Garrett, L. (2020). COVID-19: the medium is the message. The lancet, 395(10228), 942-943.
Gallagher, S., & Zahavi, D. (2020). The phenomenological mind. Routledge.
Gesteland, R. R. (1999). Global business behaviour: erfolgreiches Verhalten und Verhandeln im internationalen Geschäft. Orell Füssli.
Guthrie, C., Fosso-Wamba, S., & Arnaud, J. B. (2021). Online consumer resilience during a pandemic: An exploratory study of e-commerce behavior before, during and after a COVID-19 lockdown. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 61, 1-15.
Hair, J. F. Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2014), Multivariate Data Analysis (7th Ed.). Prentice-Hall Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Hair Jr, J. F., Hult, G. T. M., Ringle, C. M., & Sarstedt, M. (2017). A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Hall, A. E., Schulze, E. D., & Lange, O. L. (1976). Current perspectives of steady-state stomatal responses to environment. In Water and plant life (pp. 169-188). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Hampden-Turner, C., & Trompenaars, A. (2002). Siedem wymiarów kultury. Znaczenie różnic kulturowych w działalności gospodarczej, Oficyna Ekonomiczna, Warszawa.
Hampden-Turner, C. M., & Trompenaars, F. (2002). A mirror-image world: doing business in Asia. Managing across cultures: Issues and perspectives, 284.
Haws, K. L., Bearden, W. O., & Nenkov, G. Y. (2012). Consumer spending self-control effectiveness and outcome elaboration prompts. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 40(5), 695-710.
Haws, K., Davis, S., & Dholakia, U. (2016). Salad= success and fries= failure? Conceptualizing and assessing self‐control outcome measures in food decision‐making research. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 15(2), 99-116.
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to Mediation, Moderation and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-based Approach. Guilford Press, New York, NY.
Helbig‐Lang, S., & Petermann, F. (2010). Tolerate or eliminate? A systematic review on the effects of safety behavior across anxiety disorders. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 17(3), 218-233.
Holder, A., Ruhanen, L., Mkono, M., & Walters, G. (2021). Tourist socio-cultural aversions: A holistic conceptual framework. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 49, 439-450.
Horton, R. (2020). Offline: 2019-nCoV—“A desperate plea”. The Lancet, 395(10222), 400.
Hultgren, A.; Krasovich, E.; et al. The effect of large-scale anti-contagion policies on the COVID 19 pandemic. Nature 2020, 584, 262–267.
Huynh, T. L. D. (2020). Does culture matter social distancing under the COVID-19 pandemic?. Safety Science, 104872.
Inglehart, R. (1990). Values, ideology, and cognitive mobilization in new social movements. Challenging the political order: new social and political movements in western democracies, 43-66.
Karagöz, D., Işık, C., Dogru, T., & Zhang, L. (2021). Solo female travel risks, anxiety and travel intentions: Examining the moderating role of online psychological-social support. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(11), 1595-1612.
Kim, C. & Lee, S. (2000). Understanding the cultural differences in tourist motivation between Anglo-American and Japanese tourists. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, 9(1/2), 153-170.
Kim, S. S. & Prideaux, B. (2005). Marketing implications arising from a comparative study of international pleasure tourist motivations and other travel-related characteristics of visitors to Korea. Tourism Management, 26(3), 347-357.
Klenosky, D. B. (2002). The ‘pull’ of tourism destination: A means-end investigation. Journal of Travel Research, 40(4), 385-395.
Koc, E. (2019). Turkish tourism and hospitality students’ social anxiety and avoidance. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 31(1), 49-54.
Kock, F., Josiassen, A., & Assaf, A. G. (2019a). Scale development in tourism research: Advocating for a new paradigm. Journal of Travel Research, 58(7), 1227–1229.
Kock, F., Josiassen, A., & Assaf, A. G. (2019b). The xenophobic tourist. Annals of Tourism Research, 74, 155–166.
Kock, F., Josiassen, A., Assaf, A. G., Karpen, I., & Farrelly, F. (2019c). Tourism ethnocentrism and its effects on tourist and resident behavior. Journal of Travel Research, 58(3), 427–439.
Kozak, M. (2002). Comparative analysis of tourist motivations by nationality and destinations. Tourism Management, 23(3), 221-232.
Kumar, S., Miller, E. G., Mende, M., & Scott, M. L. (2022). Language matters: humanizing service robots through the use of language during the COVID-19 pandemic. Marketing Letters, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11002-022-09630-x.
Latané, B. (1996). Dynamic social impact: The creation of culture by communication. Journal of communication, 46(4), 13-25.
Lazarus, J. V., Ratzan, S., Palayew, A., Billari, F. C., Binagwaho, A., Kimball, S., ... & El-Mohandes, A. (2020). COVID-SCORE: A global survey to assess public perceptions of government responses to COVID-19 (COVID-SCORE-10). PloS one, 15(10), e0240011.
Lee, S. A., Mathis, A. A., Jobe, M. C., & Pappalardo, E. A. (2020). Clinically significant fear and anxiety of COVID-19: A psychometric examination of the coronavirus anxiety scale. Psychiatry Research, 113112.
Lehto, X., Douglas, A. C., & Park, J. (2008). Mediating the effects of natural disasters on travel intention. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 23(2-4), 29-43.
Liao, O., Cowling, B. J., Lam, W. WT., Ng, D. MW., & Fielding, R. (2014). Anxiety, worry and cognitive risk estimate in relation to protective behaviors during the 2009 influenza A/H1N1 pandemic in Hong Kong: Ten cross-sectional surveys. BMC Infectious Diseases, 14, 169. Doi: 10.1186/1471-2334-14-169.
Loxton, M., Truskett, R., Scarf, B., Sindone, L., Baldry, G., & Zhao, Y. (2020). Consumer behaviour during crises: Preliminary research on how coronavirus has manifested consumer panic buying, herd mentality, changing discretionary spending and the role of the media in influencing behaviour. Journal of Risk and Financial Management, 13 (8), 166.
Loewenstein, G. (1996). Out of control: Visceral influences on behavior. Organizational behavior and human decision processes, 65(3), 272-292.
L¨ofgren, O. (2008). The secret lives of tourists: Delays, disappointments and daydreams. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 8(1), 85–101.
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological bulletin, 129(5), 674.
Mertens, G., Gerritsen, L., Duijndam, S., Salemink, E., & Engelhard, I. M. (2020). Fear of the coronavirus (COVID-19): Predictors in an online study conducted in March 2020. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 102258.
Miller, R. A., Pople Jr, H. E., & Myers, J. D. (1982). Internist-I, an experimental computer-based diagnostic consultant for general internal medicine. New England Journal of Medicine, 307(8), 468-476.
Mishler, W., & Rose, R. (2001). What are the origins of political trust? Testing institutional and cultural theories in post-communist societies. Comparative political studies, 34(1), 30-62.
Mudzanani, T. E. (2016). A thematic analysis of newspaper articles on xenophobia and tourism in South Africa. African Journal for Physical Activity and Health Sciences (AJPHES), 22(1-2), 335-343.
Muto, K., Yamamoto, I., Nagasu, M., Tanaka, M., & Wada, K. (2020). Japanese citizens' behavioral changes and preparedness against COVID-19: An online survey during the early phase of the pandemic. Plos one, 15(6), e0234292.
Nelson, M. E., Rejeski, W. J., Blair, S. N., Duncan, P. W., Judge, J. O., King, A. C., & Macera, C. A. (2007). & Castaneda-Sceppa, C.(2007). Physical activity and public health in older adults: recommendation from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Circulation, 116(9), 1094.
Neuburger, L., & Egger, R. (2021). Travel risk perception and travel behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic 2020: A case study of the DACH region. Current Issues in Tourism, 24(7), 1003-1016.
Newton, K. (2020). Government Communications, Political Trust and Compliant Social Behaviour: The Politics of Covid‐19 in Britain. The Political Quarterly, 91(3), 502-513.
Podsakoff, P. M., & Organ, D. W. (1986). Self-reports in organizational research: Problems and prospects. Journal of Management, 12(4), 531-544.
Prideaux, B.; Thompson, M.; Pabel, A. Lessons from COVID-19 can prepare global tourism for the economic transformation needed to combat climate change. Tourism Geography, 2020, 22, 667–678.
Quinn, S. C., Parmer, J., Freimuth, V. S., Hilyard, K. M., Musa, D., & Kim, K. H. (2013). Exploring communication, trust in government, and vaccination intention later in the 2009 H1N1 pandemic: results of a national survey. Biosecurity and bioterrorism: biodefense strategy, practice, and science, 11(2), 96-106.
Raptopoulou-Gigi, M. (2003). Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS): A new emerging disease in the 21stcentury. Hippokratia, 7(2), 81–83.
Reisinger, Y., & Mavondo, F. (2005). Travel anxiety and intentions to travel internationally: Implications of travel risk perception. Journal of Travel Research, 43 (3), 212–225.
Ritchie, B. W., & Jiang, Y. (2019). A review of research on tourism risk, crisis and disaster management: Launching the annals of tourism research curated collection on tourism risk, crisis and disaster management. Annals of Tourism Research, 79 (November), 102812.
Rittichainuwat, B. N., & Chakraborty, G. (2009). Perceived travel risks regarding terrorism and disease: The case of Thailand. Tourism Management, 30(3), 410–418.
Ruiu, M. L. (2020). Mismanagement of Covid-19: lessons learned from Italy. Journal of Risk Research, 1-14.
Sadock, B. J., Sadock, V. A., & Kaplan, H. I. (2009). Kaplan and Sadock's concise textbook of child and adolescent psychiatry. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
Odekerken-Schröder, G., Mele, C., Russo-Spena, T., Mahr, D., & Ruggiero, A. (2020). Mitigating loneliness with companion robots in the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond: an integrative framework and research agenda. Journal of Service Management. 32(6), 1149-1162.
Seabra, C., Dolnicar, S., Abrantes, J. L., & Kastenholz, E. (2013). Heterogeneity in risk and safety perceptions of international tourists. Tourism Management, 36, 502–510.
Seale, H., Heywood, A. E., Leask, J., Steel, M., Thomas, S., Durrheim, D. N., ... & Kaur, R. (2020). COVID-19 is rapidly changing: Examining public perceptions and behaviors in response to this evolving pandemic. medRxiv.
Sechrist, G. B., & Stangor, C. (2001). Perceived consensus influences intergroup behavior and stereotype accessibility. Journal of personality and social psychology, 80(4), 645.
Seminara, G., Carli, B., Forni, G., Fuzzi, S., Mazzino, A., & Rinaldo, A. (2020). Biological fluid dynamics of airborne COVID-19 infection. Rendiconti Lincei. Scienze fisiche e naturali, 1-33.
Sibley, C. G., Greaves, L. M., Satherley, N., Wilson, M. S., Overall, N. C., Lee, C. H., ... & Houkamau, C. A. (2020). Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and nationwide lockdown on trust, attitudes toward government, and well-being. American Psychologist.
Siegrist, M., & Zingg, A. (2014). The role of public trust during pandemics: Implications for crisis communication. European psychologist, 19(1), 23.
Seligman, M. E., Walker, E. F., & Rosenhan, D. L. (2001). Abnormal psychology. Norton.
Shabahang, R., Aruguete, M. S., & McCutcheon, L. E. (2020). Online Health Information Utilization and Online News Exposure as Predictor of COVID-19 Anxiety. North American Journal of Psychology, 22(3), 469-482.
Stangor, C., Sechrist, G. B., & Jost, J. T. (2001). Changing racial beliefs by providing consensus information. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(4), 486-496.
Stress. (n.d.). In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved from: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/citation
Song, W., Jin, X., Gao, J., & Zhao, T. (2020). Will Buying Follow Others Ease Their Threat of Death? An Analysis of Consumer Data during the Period of COVID-19 in China. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(9), 3215.
Taha, S., Matheson, K., Cronin, T., & Anisman, H. (2013). Intolerance of uncertainty, appraisals, coping, and anxiety: The case of the 2009 H1N1 pandemic. British Journal of Health Psychology, 19(3), 592–605. doi:10.1111/bjhp.12058
Taylor, S. (2019). Cognitive behavioral Model of Health Anxiety in The Psychology of Pandemics: Preparing for the next Global Outbreak of Infectious Disease. Newcastel: Cambridge Scholar Publishing, 49–56.
Tolbert, C. J., Mossberger, K., 2006. The Effects of E-government on Trust and Confidence in Government. Public Administration Review 66(3), 354–369.
Veiga, C., Santos, M. Cguas, P., & Santos, J. A. C. (2017). Are millennials transforming global tourism? Challenges for destinations and companies. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 9(6), 603–616.
Veiga, C., Santos, M. Cguas, P., & Santos, J. A. C. (2018). Sustainability as a key driver to address challenges. Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes, 10(6), 662–673. DOI: 10.1108/WHATT-08-2018-0054.
Williams, A. M., Chen, J. L., Li, G., & Baláž, V. (2022). Risk, uncertainty and ambiguity amid Covid-19: A multi-national analysis of international travel intentions. Annals of Tourism Research, 92, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2021.103346.
Zerva, K., Palou, S., Blasco, D., & Donaire, J. A. B. (2019). Tourism-philia versus tourism-phobia: Residents and destination management organization's publicly expressed tourism perceptions in Barcelona. Tourism Geographies, 21(2), 306–329. DOI: 10.1080/14616688.2018.1522510.