Electrochemical studies play a crucial role in many fields of science and technology, from batteries and energy storage to environmental science and medicine. Electrochemical studies provide a deeper understanding of chemical reactions involving the transfer of electrons, which is critical for designing and developing materials, improving existing products, and solving environmental problems. Hence, electrochemical applications are considered as a futuristic tool to safeguard our environment and make a general point in moving away from extracting non-renewable sources to produce energy. Hence, we have explored and developed ZnCo2O4 spinel composite for various electrochemical applications, which include supercapacitors, electrochemical glucose sensors, electrochemical hydrogen peroxide production, and fuel cell cathode application. All these mentioned applications aim to preserve a clean environment for future generations. Considering the safe reaction setup, we have used hydrothermal reaction to synthesize a ZnCo2O4-based composite.
In the first work, we developed a ZnCo2O4-based composite for supercapacitor and electrochemical glucose sensor application. The hybrid combination had ZnCo2O4, g-C3N4, and polyaniline. The synthesized materials were confirmed with various characterization tools, which include structural, chemical, morphological, electronic, and electrochemical studies and further applications. The synthesized materials were developed for bifunctional targe, including supercapacitors and electrochemical glucose sensors. The fabricated supercapacitor delivered energy density and power density of 6.75 kWh/kg and 375 W/kg, respectively. When applied as an electrochemical sensor, the high-performing optimized material combination delivered the sensing activity of 15.64 mA mM-1 cm-2 in a linear range of 0.1 mM to 3 mM with an acceptable detection limit of 4 uM.
In the second work, ZnCo2O4 was coupled with g-C3N4 by using a hydrothermal process. The detailed confirmation of materials with various characterizations is done similarly to the first work for synthesis confirmation. The application targeted is electrochemical hydrogen peroxide production and methanol oxidation reaction. In both applications, the reaction mechanisms are clearly explained and illustrated by schematic representation. The developed composite material in hydrogen peroxide production delivered an excellent electron transfer number of 2.30 and a higher H2O2 selectivity of 86.74 % at 0.55 V vs. RHE. The same material showed methanol oxidation reaction activity of 162.5 mA/cm2 at 10 mA/cm2 in the electrolyte mixture of 1 M potassium hydroxide + 0.5 M Methanol.
In the final work, we developed a bimetallic double hydroxide with Zinc and Cobalt ions and coupled it with PANI-derived porous carbon. The developed material showed a hydrotalcite structure which confirms the synthesized material. Upon explicit confirmation of the material, the application studies are targeted to supercapacitor and ethanol oxidation reactions. For supercapacitor fabrication, the asymmetric hybrid supercapacitor delivered an energy density of 30.13 Wh/kg at a power density of 1.6 kW/kg, and remained up to 15.33 Wh/kg at 3.9 kW/kg. Further, stability studies and practical demonstrations were performed with a fabricated supercapacitor. In the ethanol oxidation reaction application, the ZnCo-LDH/Porous carbon material delivered the activity of 55 mA/cm2 at 0.6 V, and other studies like Tafel, active sites analysis, and electron transfer kinetic analysis are in good agreement with activity results. Hence, all the above works are meant to be satisfactory and can be oriented to sustainable, green development in the energy and environment sector.

Table of contents Page no
Abstract…………………………………………………………………… i
Acknowledgments……………………………………………………….. iii
List of Publications……………………………………………………….. iv
List of Figures…………………………………………………………….. x
List of Tables……………………………………………………………… xv
List of schemes……………………………………………………………. xvi
List of abbreviations………………………………………………………. xvii

1. Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1. ZnCo2O4 properties and its applications…………………………………. 3
1.2. Layered double hydroxide properties and applications………………….. 5
1.3. Supercapacitors………………………………………………………….. 6
1.4. Electrochemical glucose sensors………………………………………… 11
1.5. Electrochemical Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) production……………...... 12
1.6. Alcohol oxidation reaction………………………………………………. 14
1.7. Objectives………………………………………………………………… 16

2. Chapter 2
Literature survey
2.1. ZnCo2O4 and Composites in supercapacitor application……………….. 21
2.1.1. ZnCo2O4 with different morphology in supercapacitors………………... 22
2.1.2. ZnCo2O4 composite with carbonaceous material………………………. 24
2.1.3. ZnCo2O4 composite with conducting polymers………………………… 26
2.2. ZnCo2O4 and its composite towards electrochemical glucose sensors…. 27
2.3. ZnCo2O4 and its composite towards electrochemical H2O2 synthesis….. 28
2.4. ZnCo2O4 and its composite for the methanol oxidation reaction……….. 29
2.5. ZnCo-LDH and composite towards supercapacitor……………………… 29
2.6. ZnCo-LDH and composite towards ethanol oxidation reaction………….. 30

3. Chapter 3
Experimental and characterizations
3.1. Material synthesis strategies……………………………………………… 33
3.1.1. Hydrothermal process……………………………………………………. 33
3.1.2. In-situ polymerization method…………………………………………... 34
3.2. Characterization instruments…………………………………………….. 36
3.2.1. X-ray Diffractometer…………………………………………………….. 36
3.2.2. Field emission scanning electron microscopy…………………………… 36
3.2.3. Transmission electron microscopy………………………………………. 37
3.2.4. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy……………………………………….. 37
3.2.5. Electrochemical work station……………………………………………. 38

4. Chapter 4
PANI/g-C3N4 composite over ZnCo2O4/Ni-foam as a bi-functional electrode towards supercapacitor and electrochemical glucose sensor
4.1. Experimental procedure………………………………………………….. 43
4.1.1. Preparation of ZnCo2O4/Ni foam materials……………………………… 43
4.1.2. Preparation of g-C3N4........................................... 43
4.1.3. Preparation of ZnCo2O4/g-C3N4/PANI ternary composite materials……. 43
4.1.4. Electrolyte preparation…………………………………………………… 44
4.1.5. Materials Characterizations……………………………………………… 44
4.1.6. Electrochemical measurements for three electrodes assembly…………… 45
4.1.7. Electrode preparation for kinetic studies and measurements…………….. 45
4.1.8 Fabrication of supercapacitors and measurement………………………… 46
4.1.9 Fabrication and analysis for electrochemical glucose sensing……………. 46
4.2. Results and discussion…………………………………………………… 48
4.2.1. Structural, Chemical, and surface area properties………………………… 48
4.2.2. Kinetic studies……………………………………………………………. 50
4.2.3. SEM images………………………………………………………………. 52
4.2.4. XPS study…………………………………………………………………. 56
4.2.5. Electrochemical performance of ZCO-based fabricated electrodes……… 58
4.2.6. Asymmetric supercapacitor performance of ZGP-3 electrode…………… 62
4.2.7. Electrochemical glucose sensing performance of ZGP-3 electrode……… 64
4.3. Conclusion………………………………………………………………… 68

5. Chapter 5
Dual morphology ZnCo2O4 coupled graphitic carbon nitride: an efficient electro-catalyst for electrochemical H2O2 production and Methanol oxidation reaction
5.1. Experiments and experimental…………………………………………… 72
5.1.1. Synthesis of ZnCo2O4/g-C3N4 composite………………………………... 72
5.1.2. Electrode preparation for electrochemical studies………………………. 73
5.1.3 Electrode preparation for kinetic studies and measurements……………. 73
5.1.4. Electrochemical studies for H2O2 production……………………………. 74
5.1.5. Electrochemical studies for MOR……………………………………….. 74
5.2. Results and discussion…………………………………………………… 75
5.2.1. Structural, chemical, and surface area analysis………………………….. 75
5.2.2. Electronic structure analysis…………………………………………….. 77
5.2.3. Morphology and microstructural analysis………………………………. 79
5.2.4. Electrochemical properties with rotational disk electrode………………. 82
5.2.5. Electrochemical H2O2 production activity………………………………. 87
5.2.6. Methanol oxidation reaction activity…………………………………… 92
5.2.7. Post-stability morphology studies……………………………………….. 96
5.3. Conclusion……………………………………………………………… 97

6. Chapter 6
ZnCo-layered double hydroxides coupled polyaniline-derived porous carbon: An efficient electro-catalyst towards supercapacitor and fuel cells application.
6.1. Experimental procedure…………………………………………………. 102
6.1.1. Synthesis of PANI-derived porous carbon………………………………. 102
6.1.2. Synthesis of ZnCo-LDH/PC…………………………………………….. 102
6.1.3. Material characterizations………………………………………………. 103
6.1.4. Electrode preparation procedure for supercapacitors…………………… 104
6.1.5. Three-electrode assembly for electrochemical measurements…………... 104
6.1.6. Fabrication of solid-state supercapacitors and analysis…………………. 104
6.1.7. Electrodes preparation and analysis for EOR and ORR………………… 105
6.1.8. Electron transfer number calculation……………………………………. 105
6.2. Results and discussion…………………………………………………… 106
6.2.1. Structural, chemical, thermal, and surface area analysis………………… 106
6.2.2. Electronic studies………………………………………………………… 108
6.2.3. Morphological studies…………………………………………………… 110
6.2.4. Three-electrode assembly electrochemical analysis…………………….. 112
6.2.5. Fabrication of solid-state hybrid supercapacitor………………………… 118
6.2.6. Fuel cell cathode application……………………………………………. 120
6.3. Conclusion……………………………………………………………….. 125

7. Chapter 7
Future works and conclusion
7.1. Future works……………………………………………………………... 128
7.1.1. Electrochemical Nitrate reductions……………………………………..... 128
7.1.2. Role of ZnCo2O4 in electrochemical nitrate reduction…………………… 129
7.2. Final conclusions…………………………………………………………. 129
References………………………………………………………………… 132

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